by Lucy V Hay
STRUCTURE
Many screenwriters erroneously believe characterisation to be the most important element of the character-led drama screenplay. But whether a character has a transformative arc, or is a change agent or closed protagonist, structure must play its part in bringing his or her story to us, the audience. Yet a huge proportion of spec drama screenplays have their characters essentially ‘stand still’: they quite literally want or desire nothing. As a result their stories feel like extended sessions of ‘talking heads’ and I feel as if I’m reading screenplays filled with various people talking about ‘stuff’. Some of it is even interesting, but only in the sense some drunk person chatting randomly to you on the bus can be entertaining on occasion… it’s very hit or miss – and usually a big fat MISS.
So, how best to tackle structure, when it comes to your own spec drama screenplay? Frustratingly, there are no genre conventions to draw from; just like its story, theme and characters, a drama screenplay can use whatever it wants in terms of structural methods (as long as that is what’s best for the story). Knowing where to start, then, can be difficult and brain exploding, because arguably you could tell it any number of ways! Again, it’s a question of listening to your gut and remembering what excited you about the story when you first conceived it. You must also identify those threats and opportunities that will not only get your screenplay written, but help sell it ‘off the page’ to others, including the audience.
In the course of my research for this book and watching a stack of produced dramas, I would venture movies may fall into one of the following three (very) loose structural categories:
• Linear. As its name suggests, linear storytelling is the ‘typical’ or ‘usual’ way of telling a story, with a beginning, middle and end in the ‘right’ order. How a spec screenwriter tackles structure in their drama screenplay will ultimately be up to them (I’m a ‘three acts’ girl myself, as everyone knows); but perhaps more surprisingly, how that linear tale will be interpreted structurally will be up to the person reading and/or viewing it. Many spec drama screenwriters will write to me, telling me to look at their screenplays with reference to a particular structural method, but the fact is, I don’t really ‘get’ how structure works beyond The Three Acts. That’s not to say I don’t understand alternative versions; of course I do. But when I look at anyone’s linear story, I think ‘Beginning, Middle, End’ with a catalyst into the middle (or ‘plot point’, if you like), a midpoint (halfway, page-wise), and a further catalyst that spurs us on to the end (or ‘plot point two’). That’s it. Why complicate things? But that’s just me. Fact is, you can call your structural method whatever you want and follow whatever diagrams/instructions make most sense to you! NEVER listen to the people who tell you you’re doing it ‘wrong’ or that your draft is ‘doomed’ if you don’t use whatever it is they’re hocking. Page counting and getting hysterical over where events are ‘supposed’ to be is not the way forward. Have faith in your ability to tell a story. After all, the only things readers (and thus audiences) care about is that a story a) makes sense and b) is interesting!
• Non-linear. A good proportion of spec drama screenplays are non-linear. That is in itself unremarkable when we consider how drama stories are frequently about the psyche (with the likes of flashbacks placing us ‘inside’ characters’ minds); or else they involve large swathes of time, which means they may utilise a device like the framing story. Many spec screenwriters get confused about flashbacks and framing stories, but they are not the same. Flashbacks are usually short sequences, sometimes momentary intercuts, taking us back in time for some reason relating to plot and/or character (especially if their POV changes). In comparison, a framing story relates most often to plot structure. The most classic version in a drama screenplay and/or produced content is a character who is now old in the so-called ‘present’, telling his or her story to a younger character… and then we move into the ‘past’, to see that older character as a young man or woman, or perhaps another character altogether! Typically we will rejoin that older character not only at the end, but at various points throughout the narrative, especially for comedic or dramatic purposes. Framing stories were particularly popular in eighties family dramas relating to characters reading books or fairy tales, such as Grandfather telling the story of The Princess Bride (1987) to his grandson, who is home from school, ill in bed. Last of all, and not to be underestimated, is the much-maligned dream sequence: we don’t see it much outside of horror and the occasional thriller and I always wonder why, when its potential for drama is huge (when used well!).
• Episodic. If dealing with an epic arena or ‘larger-than-life’ character (or both), especially in the biopic of a famous person (but not necessarily), a spec drama screenwriter may elect to use an episodic structure. Usually those loosely connected ‘episodes’ of a person’s life will relate back to the story’s theme or overarching message in some way. In the case of Forrest Gump, the various episodes of his childhood involving his low IQ and his mother’s unrelenting loyalty obviously ‘feed into’ what comes next. We believe he will not leave Lieutenant Dan or Bubba, becoming a war hero not because of patriotism or duty, but because of that same loyalty ‘no matter what’ Forrest’s mother showed him as a child. Similarly, Forrest’s later success on the football field cleverly mirrors his lack of success with Jenny as his love interest, because they are from two different worlds, both intellectually and emotionally. This is neatly tied in with Jenny’s, ‘Run, Forrest!,’ in that renowned scene in which the child version of himself sheds his leg calipers running from the bullies. It should be noted here too that a spec TV drama pilot will most likely need to be episodic, especially if it is for a returning series, to accommodate its ‘story of the week’ and ‘serial element’. That said, if a writer wants to attempt a feature-length drama screenplay for television, aka a ‘movie of the week’, the usual thoughts on structure apply with regard to non-linearity. Though MOWs don’t tend to be made in the UK (and especially not from material by new writers), I have heard of spec screenwriters getting deals on their MOWs to develop them with prodcos and networks as returning series (though I’ve not knowingly seen any of the finished results on the small screen). In addition, MOW scripts can sell overseas, especially in the US and Germany, though a writer usually needs an agent to access these markets.
THE POINT OF NO RETURN
Various structural ‘gurus’ and methods talk of the concept of ‘All Is Lost,’ most famously Blake Snyder’s ‘Save the Cat!’ structural breakdown. However, just like the notion of ‘character change’, this does not always necessarily reflect what a story needs in my opinion (especially drama screenplays in which writers want to elicit joy as an emotional response from their target audience). Instead, if we think about transformative arcs, or the choices change agents and closed protagonists may (or may not!) make, I think it’s potentially more useful to think of ‘The Point of No Return’. This is because produced drama content does not necessarily deal in ‘life-or-death’ stakes, because a drama’s primary role is looking at characters’ psyches and world views. So audiences are often asked to invest in a protagonist’s more metaphorical goals, such as throwing off the shackles of the past, dealing with bereavement or loss, or ‘winning’ (whether that means actually winning at a contest or not). However, to be able to do this, there must be a moment where the plot ‘tips’ (a ‘point of no return’), which then creates a shift in the dramatic context of the story and propels those characters towards the resolution. But what is dramatic context and how does it work in drama screenplays?
DRAMATIC CONTEXT
One of the most undervalued elements of the writing craft in general is dramatic context. If ‘drama is conflict’ the background or climate surrounding events in the story (the context) simply MUST change (regardless of whether characters do or not). If the characters in your spec drama screenplay are not to ‘stand still’, something must compel them to ‘do something’. Again, obviou
s stuff, yet my experience is no different from that of various script readers the world over when I say the spec pile is filled to the brim with characters standing stock still!
THE THREE DRAMA SCREENPLAY STRUCTURES
But how do we find the ‘dramatic context’ of our stories, which will in turn help us pinpoint what kind of structure we use: linear, non-linear or episodic? Well, why not let your character do it for you?
• Does your character have a ‘transformative arc’? They do? Great! Then this should be easiest for you, because, as we know, spec drama screenplays and produced content frequently include characters who make some sort of realisation over the course of the narrative. So, as an example, if your character goes from hopefulness to hopelessness (as Cindy does in Blue Valentine), then, quite simply, the dramatic context of your story reflects that. As a result, the first half or three quarters of your screenplay will reflect your character HOPING she can turn the situation around, with the second half or last quarter reflecting that, basically, EVERYTHING IS SCREWED.
TIPS: Keep it simple. Don’t lose sight of what’s going on in your drama screenplay by trying to shove too much in there. Relate everything back to your dramatic context to ensure that your character, and what happens to him/her, stays on the straight and narrow. With all this in mind, then, characters with transformative arcs lend themselves particularly well to linear narratives… but this is where it gets complicated, because non-linear narratives also like characters with transformative arcs! Leading me to my next question…
• Do you want to use a non-linear structure method? Okay, so we’ve established your character has a transformative arc and you feel you want to use something non-linear in telling that character’s story. Nothing wrong with that! Non-linearity typically gets a bad rap as a storytelling device amongst script readers, producers and filmmakers, often because a large proportion of spec screenplays do it BADLY. The function of non-linearity in any story, but especially a drama screenplay, is usually that the ‘past’ (or similar, whatever this means) must inform the ‘present’ (ditto) in some way with reference to the following:
i. What does the PAST tell us about the PRESENT in this story, in terms of a) plot, b) character, or c) both?
ii. What device are you using for the non-linearity? (i.e. flashback, framing story, dream sequence, etc., and HOW: it must be consistent!)
iii. Does the story NEED to be non-linear?
Working backwards (naturally!) and dealing with the third point first, I would venture the vast majority of non-linear screenplays do NOT need to be non-linear, and are that way simply because the writer has conceived of the storyline with ‘style over substance’ in mind. This is obviously not desirable, especially in drama where characterisation is so important. Moving on to the second point, then, it is important to ensure non-linearity follows its own structure, so the audience might have an ‘anchor’ on how it works: e.g. if all the flashbacks were cut out and edited together, would they form a complete short film of their own? Or are they the ‘visual answers’ to questions posed in the present? Or something else entirely? Finally, if we are to consider that non- linearity has its own function, i.e. that of pushing the ‘present’ story forward (rather than simply filling in gaps with extraneous exposition or character background), the first point must be adhered to, to the letter. The co-writer of Saving Mr Banks, Kelly Marcel, talks of ‘rhythm’ and ‘feel’, two things spec screenwriters attempting non-linearity frequently underestimate, preferring instead to rely on page counting and paradigms, or, conversely, random pot luck! But all this leads to a disjointed narrative, a big fat headache for your script reader, and development hell for your spec drama screenplay.
TIPS: If you want to attempt a non-linear narrative for your spec drama screenplay, write not one but TWO individual outlines or scene breakdowns: one listing the plot beats of the ‘present’ thread, the other the ‘past’ thread. You can then weave the two storylines together to the story’s satisfaction (obviously, do this whatever way works for you, such as index cards, virtual or real, or a written list, which you can cut up and move around; or use a structure programme or tool online, and so on). From there, write a short outline of two to four pages incorporating all those plot beats (both ‘present’ and ‘past’, in the order you have decided). You’re not writing a ‘selling document’, but an extended ‘note to self’ to see if the story works. Remember: if you cannot make it work on two to four pages, you cannot make it work on ninety to a hundred! Don’t gloss over glitches and holes in the hope you can fix it in the actual screenplay later; all that will happen is you’ll tie yourself and your story up in knots. Non-linearity IS hard, so don’t sabotage yourself and your draft from the outset.
• Is your character a change agent? There’s absolutely no reason a change agent cannot be part of a linear or non-linear storyline, but they arguably thrive better in episodic structures. The reason for this is simple. Thinking back again to Forrest Gump, we can believe in his status as a change agent because he affects SO MANY people’s lives, whether they are close to him (Jenny, Lieutenant Dan, Bubba, his mother) or not (Elvis or the random joggers, ‘Shit Happens’). But in order to incorporate so many characters, both secondary and peripheral, a large time period needs to be covered and so an ‘episodic’ structure is frequently the best ‘fit’ for this type of character.
TIPS: If you want to create an episodic structure for your drama screenplay, think first about the elements of that person’s life you want to include in your screenplay (this may be ‘easier’ with a real person in a biopic than a fictional one, of course). Plot these events on a timeline and work out how they relate to one another. Remember: you don’t want these ‘episodes’ to be random; they need to be ‘loosely connected’ so your target audience can appreciate the effect the change agent has on other people, which in turn creates that all-important emotional response. So what does your selection of events tell us about a) the change agent, b) the secondary and peripheral characters, and c) the theme or message of the story?
• Is your character a closed protagonist? Again, there’s absolutely no reason why your closed protagonist cannot be part of a non-linear or episodic structure, but I am going to argue these particular characters flourish best in a linear story. If your character makes a series of bad or self-sabotaging choices (as Miles does in Sideways), it often helps to construct the plot in a way that ‘adds up’ as we go along. The reason for this is because we often become voyeurs to that closed protagonist’s bad decision-making, as we might a friend’s in ‘real life’, yet we are absolutely powerless to stop him or her. The story then becomes almost excruciating, as the audience is forced to watch the protagonist ‘crash’ into his or her realisation. In other cases, like Dumbo, we may invest in that closed protagonist’s journey by being ‘led’ by another character, such as Timothy. Though the story includes the famous ‘pink elephants on parade’ dream/drunk sequence, I would argue the movie still remains (more or less) linear, because it is Dumbo’s story we’re essentially following and BOTH he and Timothy are drunk at the same time, leading directly to the moment when both characters realise that Dumbo can fly, when they awake in a tree.
TIPS: If you want us to invest in a character who is his or her own worst enemy, make the audience voyeurs. A linear structure can do this best, irrespective of the time span of the story, though often the shorter, the better: in the case of Sideways, just one week. You can also do this by making the audience party to that protagonist’s own lies, such as when Miles is woken by his phone ringing at the beginning of the film and tells the caller he’s stuck in traffic. We know he’s not stuck in traffic, because we’re seeing him in bed, hung-over. Alternatively, in the case of such stories as Dumbo, the little elephant is constantly misrepresented as stupid, whether it’s to the circus-going public, the ringmaster or the other elephants. Dumbo is cast aside and isolated, quite literally unable to speak for himself, and we are asked to feel sorry for him, just as
Timothy the mouse does… at first. However, as we get to know Dumbo through Timothy, we stop feeling pity for the little elephant and empathise with his plight instead; a subtle, but huge difference. Dialogue can play a large part in both character and plotting, not only with closed protagonists, but in all drama screenplays.
CASE STUDY 7: THE NON-LINEAR STORY
HOURS (2013)
Writer/Director: Eric Heisserer
Produced by: Peter Safran
Budget: £2.4 million
Q: What’s good about it?
A: A powerful metaphor for the struggles ALL parents face, Nolan’s journey works on its base level by utilising emotional character work, understated directing and an outstanding central performance from the late Paul Walker.
MY LOGLINE: Newly widowed, a lone father has to keep his premature daughter alive in an incubator in a hospital that has no power and limited supplies due to Hurricane Katrina.
Writing and Selling Hours
An LA screenwriter, Eric Heisserer is possibly not the first writer or filmmaker one might think of when it comes to drama screenplays. Known for A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010), The Thing and Final Destination 5 (both 2011), Heisserer is a veteran on the Hollywood ‘rewrite and reboot’ circuit. However, if Heisserer’s choice of subject matter for his directorial debut was surprising, so was his choice of star, since Paul Walker is perhaps not the first person many of us might associate with a personal drama, either! Known best for his work in the Fast & Furious franchise, Walker had also starred in other movies, most of them comfortably within the genres of thriller and action-adventure, such as Takers (2010), Running Scared (2006) and Joy Ride (2001). Interestingly, Walker was not Heisserer’s first choice: ‘Paul could play the “swarthy hero”, but I wanted an “everyman”,’ Heisserer explains. ‘But our producer had had a good experience working with Paul, so I met with him.’ Happily, the two men really hit it off, with Paul convincing Eric he had what it took to play Nolan, the protagonist and new father in Hours: ‘Paul really wanted it. He had a daughter, Meadow, whom he adored. He knew what fatherhood was about, what the story was about.’