by Georges Roux
31. On Mesopotamian schools, pupils and teachers, see: C. J. GADD, Teachers and Students in the oldest Schools, London, 1956; A. W. SJOBERG, ‘Der Vater und sein missratener Sohn’, JCS, XXV (1973), pp. 105 – 19; ‘The Old Babylonian Eduba’ in Sumero-logical Studies in Honor of Thorkild Jacobsen, Chicago, 1976, pp. 158 – 79.
31. AJ, XI (1931), pp. 364 – 6. Excavations at Ur, pp. 186 – 7.
32. A. L. OPPENHEIM, JAOS, 74 (1954), PP. 15, 17; W. F. LEEMANS, The Old Babylonian Merchant, Leiden, 1950, pp. 78 – 95; Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period, Leiden, 1960, pp. 121 – 3 and 136 – 9.
Chapter 14
1. As can be expected, there is a vast literature on the Indo-Europeans. For a general view of the subject, see R. A. CROSS-AND, ‘Immigrants from the North’, CAH, I, 2, pp. 824 – 76; G. CARDONA, H. M. HOENIGSWALD and A. SENN (ed.), Indo-European and Indo-Europeans, Philadelphia, 1970, J. P. MALLORY, In Search of the Indo-Europeans, London, 1989.
2. V. G. CHILDE, The Dawn of European Civilization, London, 1957; P. BOSCH-GIMPERA, Les Indo-Européens: Problémes Archéologiques, Paris, 1961; M. GIMBUTAS, Bronze Age Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe, The Hague, 1965.
3. According to C. RENFREW, Before Civilization, Harmondsworth, 1976, the development of metallurgy in the Balkans was independent of Asiatic influences.
4. J. L. CASKEY, CAH, I, 2, pp. 786 – 8, and II, 1, pp. 135 – 40; cf. M. I. FINLEY, Early Greece: the Bronze and Archaic Ages, London, 1970.
5. See J. CHADWICK, The Decipherment of Linear B, Cambridge, 1959. See also: S. DOW and J. CHADWICK, CAH, I, 1, pp. 582 – 626.
6. On the Minoan civilization, cf. F. MATZ in CAH, I, 1, pp. 141 – 64 and 557 – 81. See also: S. HOOD, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, London, 1971, and N. PLATON, Crete, London, 1971.
7. SIR MORTIMER WHEELER, ‘The Indus civilization’, CAH (Supplementary Volume), 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1960; Civilization of the Indus Valley and Beyond, London, 1966.
8. G. F. DALES, ‘Civilizations and floods in the Indus Valley’, Expedition, VII (1965), pp. 10 – 19; J. P. AGRAWAL and S. KUSUM-GAR, Prehistoric Chronology and Radiocarbon Dating in India, London, 1974.
9. J. MELLAART, Çatal Hüyük: a Neolithic Town in Anatolia, London, 1967; The Neolithic of the Near East, London, 1975, pp. 98 – 111.
10. R. J. and L. S. BRAIDWOOD, Excavations in the Plain of Antioch, I, Chicago, 1960; M. J. MELLINK, ‘The prehistory of Syro-Cilicia’, Bi.Or., XIX (1962), pp. 219 – 26.
11. J. MELLAART, ‘Anatolia c. 4000 – 2300 B.C.’, CAH, I, 2, pp. 363 – 416.
12. P. GARELLI, Les Assyriens en Cappadoce, Paris, 1963; L. L. ORLIN, Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia, The Hague/Paris, 1970; M. T. LARSEN, Old Assyrian Caravan Procedures, Istanbul, 1967; The Old Assyrian City-State and its Colonies, Copenhagen, 1976; K. R. VEEN-HOF, Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology, Leiden, 1977.
13. On the Hittites generally, see: O. R. GURNEY, The Hittites, London, 1980; J. G. MACQUEEN, The Hittites and their Contemporaries in Asia Minor, London, 1986.
14. On the Hurrians generally, see: I. J. GELB, Hurrians and Subarians, Chicago, 1944; F. IMPARATI, I Hurriti, Firenze, 1964; G. WILHELM, The Hurrians, Warminster, 1989. Also see the articles published in RHA, XXXVI (1978) and in Problémes Concernant les Hurrites, 2 vol., Paris, 1977 – 84.
15. Alalah is modern Tell Atchana, between Aleppo and Antioch. British excavations in 1936 – 9: SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY, Alalah, London, 1955; A Forgotten Kingdom, 2nd ed., Harmondsworth, 1959. Texts published by D. J. WISEMAN, The Alalah Tablets, London, 1953.
16. The ancient town of Gasur, re-baptized Nuzi by the Hurrians, is Yorgan Tepe, 13 kilometres south-west of Kirkuk. American excavations from 1925 to 1931: R. F. S. STARR, Nuzi: Report on the Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, near Kirkuk, Cambridge, Mass., 1937 – 9. Bibliography on texts from Nuzi in M. DIETRICH, O. LORETZ and W. MAYER; Nuzi Bibliography, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1972. Recent studies in M. A. MORRISON and D.I. OWEN (eds), Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians, Winona Lake, Ind., 1981.
17. A. J. TOBLER, Excavations at Tepe Gawra, II, Philadelphia, 1950; Tell Billa (Assyrian Shibbaniba), near Bashiqa (16 kilometres north-east of Mosul), was also excavated by the Americans from 1930 to 1933. Reports in BASOR, Nos. 40 to 60. The Hurrian level has yielded houses and pottery, but no texts.
18. On horses in the Near East, see. A. SALONEN, Hippologica Accadica, Helsinki, 1956; A. KAMMENHUBER, Hippologica Hethitica, Wiesbaden, 1961; J. A. H. POTRATZ, Die Pferdestrensen des alten Orients, Roma, 1966.
19. K. KENYON, Archaeology in the Holy Land, London, 1960; J. MELLART, Earliest Civilizations in the Near East, pp. 22 – 46 and 57 – 62; The Neolithic of the Near East, pp. 227 – 43. See also the chapters by J. MELLAART, M. E. L. MALLOWAN and R. DE VAUX in CAH, I, I, pp. 264 – 70, 282 – 4, 413 – 21, and CAH, I, 2, pp. 208 – 37.
20. Syria: H. KLENGEL, Geschichte Syriens im 2. Jahrtausend v.u.Z, 3 vol., Berlin, 1965 – 70; Geschichte und Kultur Altsyriens, Wien-München, 1980. Palestine: R. DE VAUX, Histoire Ancienne d'Israël des Origines á l'Installation en Canaan, Paris, 1971. Egypt: A. H. GARDINER, Egypt of The Pharaohs, Oxford, 1961.
21. Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra) lies about 10 kilometres north of the Syrian port of Lattaqieh. French excavations since 1928. Preliminary reports in Syria, 1929 ff. and AAAS, 1951 ff. Short synthesis in Ras Shamra 1929 – 1979, Lyons, 1979. Also see: G. SAADE, Ougarit, Métropole Cananéenne, Beirut 1979.
22. W. A. WARD, ‘Egypt and the East Mediterranean in the early second millennium B.C.’, Orientalia, XXX (1961), pp. 22 – 45, 129 – 55.
23. W. F. ALBRIGHT, The Archaeology of Palestine, Harmondsworth, 1954, p. 80.
24. R. DE VAUX, op. cit., pp. 245 – 53, with discussion on the date of Abraham's entry into Palestine.
25. J. BOTTERO, Le Problèmes des Habiru à la 4ème Rencontre Assyri-ologique Internationale, Paris, 1954; M. GREENBERG, The Hab/piru, New Haven, 1955. See also: J. BOTTERO, ‘Habiru’, RLA, IV (1972), pp. 14 – 27.
Chapter 15
1. N. YOFEE, The Economic Role of the Crown in the Old Babylonian Period, Malibu, Calif., 1977, pp. 143 – 51; J. RENGER in E. LIPINSKI (ed.), State and Temple Economy in the Ancient Near East, I, Leuven, 1979, p. 252.
2. J. BOTTERO, ‘Désordre économique et annulation de dettes en Mésopotamie à l'époque paléo-babylonienne’, JESHO, IV (1961), pp. 113 – 64.
3. MCG. GIBSON, ‘Violation of fallow and engineered disaster in Mesopotamian civilization’ in T. E. DOWNING and MCG. GIBSON (ed.), Irrigation Impact on Society, Tucson, Ariz., 1974, pp. 7 – 19.
4. The main sources for the period are the royal inscriptions (IRSA, pp. 220 – 9), the year-names published by A. UNGNAD in RLA, II, pp. 182 – 92 and by B. E. MORGAN in Manchester Cuneiform Studies, II (1952), pp. 31 ff, 44 ff., and III (1953), pp. 56 ff., 72 ff. and 76 ff., and the Babylonian chronicle published by KING, Chronicles, II, pp. 15 – 24. On the period in general, cf. C. J. GADD in CAH, II, 1, pp. 220 – 4, and M. STOL, Studies in Old Babylonian History, Istanbul, 1976.
5. SIR LEONARD WOOLLEY and P. R. S. MOOREY, Ur of the Chaldees, London, 1982, p. 191; W. HINZ in CAH, II, 1, p. 266.
6. Little is known about this dynasty which, according to the Babylonian Royal Lists A and B (RLA, VI, pp. 91 – 100), had eleven kings and lasted 368 years (sic). Its capital-city, Urukug, has not yet been identified. The name of its first king can also be read Iliman.
7. Inscription of Esarhaddon, ARAB, II, § 576. Cf. ARI, I. p. 31.
8. A Kashtiliash whose name appears among the Semitic rulers of Hana is probably the same person as the second successor of Gandash who founded the Kassite dynasty outside Babylon during the reign of Samsu-iluna.
9. F. R. KRAUS, Ein Edikt des Königs Ammi-saduqa von Babylon, Leiden, 1958. Cf. J. J. FINKELSTEIN, ‘The edict of Ammisaduqa, a new text’, RA, LXIII (1969), pp. 45 – 64 and 189 – 90.
10. F. CORNELIUS, ‘Die Annalen Hattushilish I', Orientalia, XXVIII (1959) pp. 292 – 6; F. IMP
ARATI. and C. SAPORETTI, ‘L’autobiogra-fia di Hattushili I', Studi Classici e Orientali, XIV (1965), pp. 40 – 85.
11. Inscription of Telepinus (c. 1500 B.C.). Cf. F. HROZNY, ‘Eine Inschrift des Konigs Telepinus’, Bo.Stu, III (1919), pp. 202 – 4.
12. So far, the only synthetic studies on the Kassites are those of T. H. CARTER, Studies in Kassite History and Archaeology, Bryn Mawr, 1962 (dissertation) and of E. CASSIN in Fischer Weltgeschichte, III, Frankfurt, 1966, pp. 12 – 70. To be completed by J. A. BRINKMAN, The monarchy in the time of the Kassite dynasty' in P. GARELLI (ed.), Le Palais et la Royauté, Paris, 1974, pp. 395 – 408, and by the article ‘Kassiten’ in RLA, V, pp. 464 – 73.
13. K. BALKAN, Kassitenstudien, I, Die Sprache der Kassiten, New Haven, 1954.
14. Published by F. E. PEISER and H. WINCKLER in KB, I (1889), pp. 194 – 203. See now: A. GRAYSON, ABC, pp. 157 – 70.
15. The inscription was published by F. DELITZCH, Die Sprache der Kossäer, Leipzig, 1904. Agum states that he brought the statues ‘from the country of Hani’. Is this a scribal error for Hatti, or did the Hittites leave the statues in the country of Hańa (the region of Terqa) on their way home? On this problem see: K. JARITZ; ‘Quellen zur Geschichte der Kashshu dynasty‘, Mitteilun-gen des Instituts für Orientforschung, VI (1958), pp. 205 – 7.
16. Synchr. History, I, 1 – 17.
17. J. JORDAN, UVB, I (1930), p. 30; AAO, pp. 63 – 4, pl. 70a.
18. TAHA BAQIR, ‘Excavations at ‘Aqar Quf’, Iraq, Supplement 1944 – 5, and Iraq, VIII (1946), pp. 73 – 92.
19. See Chapter 15, note 18.
20. Most Kassite Kudurrus have been published by L. KING in Babylonian Boundary Stones, London, 1912.
21. U. SEIDL, ‘Die babylonischen Kudurru-Reliefs’, BM, IV (1968), pp. 7 – 220.
22. On these seals, see T. BERAN, ‘Die Babylonische Glyptik der Kassitenzeit‘, AfO, XVIII (1958), pp. 255 – 87, and A. LIMET, ‘Les Légendes des Sceaux Kassites’, Bruxelles, 1971. Also see D. COLLON, First Impressions, London, 1987, pp. 58 – 61.
Chapter 16
1. Details and bibliography on the events briefly described in this chapter can be found in CAH, II, particularly chapters 8, 10, 15, 17 – 20, 21 (a), 24, 25, 29, 31 and 32. Shorter accounts are available in all general histories of the ancient Near East, e.g. W. HALLO and K. SIMPSON, The Ancient Near East, a History, New York, 1971.
2. ARAB, I, § 47 – 59; ARI, I, pp. 32 – 41; Synchronistic History I, 5' – 7' (ABC, PP. 158 – 9).
3.American (1940) and German (1955 – 6) excavations at Tell Fekheriyeh, near Ras-el-‘Ain, on the Khabur, have failed to confirm the traditional identification of this site with Washukkanni. For an interesting attempt at finding that city, using neutron-activation analysis of clay from royal Mitannian letters, cf. A. DOBEL, W. J. VAN LIERE and A. A. MAHMUD, AfO, XXV (1974 – 7), pp. 259 – 64.
4. S. SMITH, The Statue of Idrimi, London, 1949. Cf. ANET, pp. 557 – 8; CAH, II, I, pp. 433 – 6. In this inscription, Idrimi recounts how he lost and recovered his throne.
5. R. S. F. STARR, Nuzi II, Cambridge (Mass.), 1937, pl. 118; H. KLENGEL, ‘Mitanni: Probleme seiner Expansion und politische Struktur’, RHA, XXXVI (1978), pp. 94 – 5.
6. Treaty between Mattiwaza and Suppiluliumas, Rev. 8 – 10. (E. WEIDNER, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien, Bo.Stu, VIII (1923), p. 39.
7. EA, 29.
8. EA, 17, 29.
9. CAH, II, 1, p. 679; O. R. GURNEY, The Hittites, London, 1980, p. 27.
10. These tablets (abbreviated EA) were found at el-Amarna (ancient Akhetaton in Egypt), the ephemeral capital-city under Amenophis IV, but they are now dispersed in various museums. They were first gathered and published by J. A. KNUDTZON, Die El-Amarna Tafeln, Leipzig, 1915: English translation: S. A. MERCER, The Tell el-Amarna Tablets, Toronto, 1939. Latest French translation: W. L. MORAN, Les Lettres d'Amarna, Paris, 1987. Apart from one letter in Hurrian and two in Hittite, they are all written in Akkadian with a few glosses in Cananaean.
11. For a general survey of the period, cf. E. CAVAIGNAC, Subbiluliuma et son Temps, Paris, 1932; K. A. KITCHEN, Suppiluliuma and the Amarna Pharaohs, Liverpool, 1962 and A. GOETZE, CAH, II, 2, pp. 1 – 20, 117 – 29 and 252 – 73.
12. EA, 7, lines 69 – 72.
13. EA, 7, lines 53 – 4.
14. EA, 14.
15. Treaty between Suppiluliumas and Mattiwaza, Rev. 50 [Bo.Stu, VIII (1923), p. 17].
16. EA, 15 – 16.
17. Synchr. Hist., I, 8 – 17. Also the so-called ‘Chronicle P‘, I, 9 – 14. (ABC, pp 159 and 172).
18. ‘Chronicle P‘, III, 10 – 19. (ABC pp. 174 – 5).
19. Cf. M. C. ASTOUR, ‘The partition of the confederacy of Mukish-Nuhashshe-Nii by Shuppiluliuma’, Orientalia, XXXVIII (1969), pp. 381 – 414.
20. Identified with Tell Kazel, north of Tripoli [M. DUNAND and N. SALIBY, AAS, VII (1957), pp. 3 – 16].
21. Qadesh is Tell Nebi Mend, in the Orontes river valley, 25 kilometres south of Horns. So far, this site has been the object of only limited excavations: M. PEZARD, Mission Archéologique à Tell Nebi Mend, Paris, 1931. On the battle of Qadesh, see: CAH, II, 2, pp. 226 – 8 and 253 – 4, with bibliography p. 952.
22. ANET, pp. 199 – 203.
23. J. FRIEDRICH, Der Alte Orient, XXIV, 3 (1925), p. 26. Cf. J. M. MUNN-RANKIN, CAH, II, 2, pp. 274 – 9.
24. ARAB, 1, § 73; ARI, I, p. 58.
25. Synchr. Hist., I, 24 – 31 (War between Adad-nirâri and Nazi-Maruttash). Cf. ABC, pp. 160 – 61.
26. ARAB, I, § 116; ARI, I, p. 82.
27. This magnificent site has been excavated by a French mission in Iran in the 1950 – 60 period. Cf. R. GHIRSHMAN et al., Tchoga-Zanbil (Dur Untash), Paris, 1966 – 70.
28. W. G. LAMBERT, ‘Three unpublished fragments of the Tukulti-Ninurta epic’, AfO, XVIII (1957 – 8), pp. 38 – 51 (gives a complete translation). Cf. E. WEIDNER, ‘Assyrischen Epen über die Kassiten-Kämpfe’, AfO, XX (1963 – 4), pp. 113 – 16. Inscriptions of Tukulti-Ninurta in ARI, I, pp. 101 – 134.
29. ARAB, I, § 145; ARI, I, pp. 119, 126.
30. Chronicle P, IV, 8 – 9 (cf. ARAB, I, § 141). Cf. ABC, p. 176.
31. Ibid., IV, 9 – 13. Kâr-Tukulti-Ninurta (modern Tukul Akir), two kilometres north of Assur, on the left bank of the Tigris, was excavated by the Germans in 1913 – 14: W. BACHMANN, MDOG, 53, pp. 41 – 57; W. ANDRAE, Das widererstandene Assur, pp. 121 – 5.
32. On the fall of the Kassite dynasty, see: D. J. WISEMAN, CAH, II, 2, p. 446 and R. LABAT, ibid., pp. 486 – 7. Contrary to K. JARITZ, op. cit., pp. 224 – 5, the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak did not take part in these events, though he later campaigned in northern Iraq.
Chapter 17
1. R. D. BARNETT, ‘The Sea-Peoples’, CAH, II, 2, pp. 359 – 78. N. K. SANDARS, The Sea-Peoples, Warriors of the Ancient Mediterranean, 1250 – 1150 B.C, London, 1978; R. A. MACALISTER, The Philistines, their History and Civilization, Chicago, 1965.
2. Later, the Parsua moved to the south-western part of Iran, occupied a district in the Bakhtiari mountains close to Elam and gave it their name: Parsu(m) ash, Persia, Fars. (See. R. GHIRSHMAN, Iran, Harmondsworth, 1954, pp. 91 and 119.)
3. W. F. ALBRIGHT, From the Stone Age to Christianity, 2nd ed., New York, 1957, pp. 13 and 255. See also: O. EISSFELD, CAH, II, 2, pp. 307 – 30. This author favours a date of c. 1400 B.C. for the entry into Egypt.
4. I Kings i-ix; II Chronicles i – ix. O. EISSFELD, ‘The Hebrew Kingdom’, CAH, II, 2, pp. 537 – 605.
5. Cf. A. SCHAEFER, Ugaritica I, Paris, 1939, pp. 43 – 6; J. NOUGAYROL, ‘Guerre et paix à Ugarit’, Iraq, XXV (1963), pp. 120 – 21. M. C. ASTOUR, ‘New evidence for the last days of Ugarit’, AJA, LXIX (1965), pp. 253 – 8.
6. I Kings v. 1 – 12; vii. 13 ff.; ix. 11 – 14; II Chronicles ii. 3 – 16; iv. 11 – 18.
7. On the civilization of the Phoenicians, see: D. HARDEN, The Phoenicians, London, 1962; S. MOSCATI, The World of the Phoenicians, London, 1973; A. PARROT, M. H. CHE
HAB, S. MOSCATI, Les Phéniciens, Paris, 1975.
8. On the alphabet, cf. G. R. DRIVER, Semitic Writing, Oxford, 1948; D. DIRINGER The Alphabet, London, 1948; J. G. FEVRIER, Histoire de l'Ecriture, Paris, 1948; I. J. GELB, A Study of Writing, London, 1952.
9. C. H. GORDON, Ugaritic Literature, Roma, 1949; G. R. DRIVER, Canaanite Myths and Legends, Edinburgh, 1956; ANET, pp. 130 – 55.
10. On the Neo-Hittites generally see: O. GURNEY, The Hittites, London, 1980, pp. 41 – 7; J. D. HAWKINS, article ‘Hatti, the first millennium B.C.’ in RLA, IV, pp. 152 – 9. On writing and grammar, E. LAROCHE, Les Hiéroglyphes Hittites, Paris, 1960. For a list of hieroglyphic inscriptions, see E. LAROCHE, ‘Liste des documents hiéroglyphiques‘, RHA, XXVII (1969), pp. 110 – 31.