The Why Axis: Hidden Motives and the Undiscovered Economics of Everyday Life
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field experiments on gender differences in, 36–40, 41–46, 51–53
role of culture in gender differences in, 13, 40–46, 53
Computer Associates, 201, 202
Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce, 32
Consumers, economic discrimination and data collected on, 118–119, 143–144
“Contingent” treatment, 232
Controlled field experiments, 4–5
Controls, experimental, 242
Cook, Peter, 190
Cook, Scott, 218–219, 220, 221, 237, 238
Correlation, causality vs., 6–12
Cost, of Head Start, 92
Coughlin, Charles, 111
Craigslist, 36
“Cross-selling,” 209
Culture
gender gap in competitive preferences and, 13, 40–46, 53
gender gap in labor markets and, 34
Culture of Calm, 151–153, 169
The Daily Show with John Stewart (television program), 188
Daley, Richard, 146, 150
Darwin, Charles, 33–34
da Vinci, Leonardo, 131
Davis, Sammy, Jr., 12, 138
Day care pickup time, incentives and, 19–21
Dell, 234
Deloitte, 60
Design thinking, 219
Direct mail solicitations, 177, 203–206
Direct mail surveys, increasing response rate to, 230–233
Disability, discrimination based on, 110, 124–127
Discrimination, 10–12
animus-based (see Animus-based discrimination)
anti-Semitism, 10, 111, 112
based on disability, 110, 124–127
based on gender, 109, 110, 115, 116–117, 120–122
based on sexual orientation, 110, 131–135
Becker study of, 111–114
dress and, 120–123
economic-based (see Economic discrimination)
economics of, 112–114
incentives for, 11–12, 113
motivations for, 11–12, 129–144
public policy and, 138–141
racial, 110, 111, 112, 115–116, 120–124, 135–138
types of, 110
using field experiments to solve issue of, 5
in workplace, 108–109
Disney, 14
Disney Research, 227–230, 239
Donate Life, 164–165
Donor pyramid, 204
Door-to-door solicitations, 177
Dow Jones, 201
Drake University, 181
Dress, discrimination and, 120–123
Drop-out problem, in Chicago Heights, 69, 70–72
Duncan, Arne, 151
Early childhood education
curriculums, 93–94, 103
Griffin Early Childhood Center, 93–103
Head Start, 91–92
Parent Academy, 94–95, 97, 103–104
East Carolina University, 185
Economic discrimination, 11–12, 116–120
basis of, 116, 127–128
combined with animus-based discrimination, 124–127
distinguishing from animus-based discrimination, 120–127, 132–138
incentives for, 11–12
Internet and expansion of, 118–120
against obese people, 130–131
reducing, 141–144
social acceptance of, 117, 129–131
Economics of discrimination, 112–114
The Economics of Discrimination (Becker), 113–114
Education
gender bias and, 61–62
See also Early childhood education; Public education
Education gap, 79, 83, 103, 105
incentives to correct, 15
using field experiments to solve issue of, 5
Education production function, 67
Ego-identification, charitable giving and, 184, 192–193
Einerson, Gary, 162–163
Einstein, Albert, 104
Electronic fingerprint, 118–120
Emotions, choices and, 80
Energy Independence and Security Act (2007), 167
Environmental economics, 173–174
European Union, 117
Evers, Medgar, 124
Evolution, lack of competitiveness among females and, 33–34
Exercise, incentives for, 28–31
Experiments
field (see Field experiments)
laboratory, 241–242
Extrinsic incentives, 73
Farragut High School (Chicago), 152–153
FASAL service, 221
Fehr, Ernst, 206
Fenger High School (Chicago), 145
Feynman, Richard, 240
Field experiments, 4–5
challenges in, 98–102
for companies, 17, 216–239
designing, 241–244
on direct-mail solicitation, 14, 203, 204–206
distinguishing economic from animus-based discrimination, 120–127, 132–138
on early childhood education, 93–104
on exercise incentives, 29–30
on gender and salary negotiable job postings, 35–38, 58–59
on gender differences in competitiveness, 36–40, 41–46, 51–53
at Humana, 222–225
to improve public policy, 169–170
on incentives to improve student performance, 87–90
on increasing charitable giving, 177–180, 181–187, 191–192
on increasing organ donation, 164–165
on increasing response rate to direct mail surveys, 230–233
at Intuit, 218–221
on monetary incentives for student achievement, 72–79
on monetary incentives for teachers, 85–87
on monetary incentives to improve standardized testing outcomes, 79–85
on pay-what-you-want pricing strategy, 227–230
on pricing wine, 225–227
randomization and, 242
on reducing childhood obesity, 161–162
on reducing teen gun violence, 151–153, 156–158
on using framing to increase productivity, 234–236
Focus groups, 218
Ford, Henry, 111
Fox & Friends (television program), 123
Framing, 80, 84, 130
gain, 80, 84, 233–234, 236
to increase productivity, 233–236
loss, 80, 84, 234, 236
Frank, Barney, 199
Free-rider effect, 179, 180
Friedman, Milton, 112, 113
Friends (television program), 24
Fryer, Roland, 92
Fundraising
beauty effect, 185–187
common assumptions, 175–177
direct-mail solicitations, 177, 203–206
door-to-door, 177
lotteries, 186, 187, 192
lottery effect, 186, 187
matching grants, 175, 180–185, 194
“once and done” campaign, 204–206, 208–209
raffles, 185–187
reciprocity and, 206–207
seed money and, 174–175, 176, 178–180
tontines, 176, 188–192
Gain framing, 80, 84, 233–234, 236
Galileo, 240
Gates, Bill, 192
Gates Foundation, 193
Gay partners, discrimination against, 110, 132–135
Gender
discrimination based on, 109, 110, 115, 116–117, 120–122
price negotiation and, 53–55, 60
responses to compensations schemes and, 36–38
risk for teen gun violence and, 155
See also Men; Women
Gender inequality (gender gap), 1–2, 12–13, 32–48
competitiveness among females and, 33–47
in education, 61–62
in hiring, 46–48, 108–109
in job status and earnings, 57
&nb
sp; in labor markets, 34, 35
policy makers and, 61–62
using field experiments to solve issue of, 5
Genocide, 111
Glass ceiling, 35–36
Global warming, 166–169
Gneezy, Jacob, 10
Gneezy, Magda, 10
Grant, Ulysses S., 111
Gratification, deferred, 93–94
Griffin, Anne, 75–76, 92, 104, 106
Griffin, Kenneth, 74–76, 92, 104, 106
Griffin Early Childhood Center, 93–103
early results, 102–103
ensuring attendance, 98–102
student lottery, 96–97
use of assessments in, 102
Griffin Foundation, 93
Gym membership, incentives for, 27–28
Habit formation, incentives and, 29–31
Hardin, Garrett, 55
Harvard Crimson (newspaper), 199–200
Hastings, Reed, 215
Hate. See Animus-based discrimination
Head Start, 91–92
Herberich, David, 167–168
Hiring, gender inequity in, 46–48, 108–109
Hiring bias, 59–60
Hispanics
discrimination against gay couples and, 134
risk for teen gun violence and, 155, 156
Hodgman, John, 188
Honda, 60
Hoodie, 121, 123
Hopkins, Nancy, 33
Hossain, Tanjim, 234
Huberman, Ron, 66–67, 86, 146–147, 148–151, 169, 170
encouraging healthy food choices in schools and, 162
violence reduction programs in schools and, 151, 153–154
Humana, 222–225, 239
Hurricane Sandy, 166
Impure altruism, 184
Incentives, 3–6, 9, 18–31
bonus, 236
changing meaning of relationship and, 20–23
for charitable giving, 14–15, 209–211
for children to eat healthy food, 161–162
designing field experiment, 241–242
differences among sexes in responding to, 35
for discrimination, 11–12, 113
distinguishing among, 22–24
extrinsic, 73
framing, 106
habit formation and, 29–31
to improve student achievement, 72–79, 84–90
intrinsic, 73
to keep kids in school, 15, 72–74, 76–79
loss, 106
matching to underlying motivation, 26–31
monetary (see Monetary incentives)
negative, 18, 21
negative externality, 24–26
outcomes shaped by, 26–31
positive, 18, 21
Smile Train donor, 202–203
social, 169–170, 210
Income, for high school dropout vs. high school graduate, 70
India, FASAL service, 221
Innovation catalysts, 219
Insurance companies, economic discrimination and, 116–117, 128, 130
Internet, expansion of economic discrimination and, 118–120
Interracial marriage, acceptance of, 115
Intrinsic incentives, 73
Intuit, 218–221, 239
Intuit Health Debit Card, 220
iPods, 217
Israel, Judi, 223
iTunes, 217
J. Walter Thompson, 201
Jefferson, Thomas, 65
Job postings, gender differences in response to salary negotiable, 35–38, 58–59
Jobs, Steve, 104, 217
Johnson, Lyndon, 91, 147
Jordan, Michael, 105
Journal of the American Medical Association, 158
Juvenile detention center, risk for gun violence and stay at, 155
Kahneman, Daniel, 80, 240
Karlan, Dean, 164, 181
Keon, Tom, 173, 174
Khasi society
field experiment on gender-based competitiveness in, 41, 51–53
matrilineal society of, 1–2, 49–51
women and marketplace negotiation among, 53–55
women and public goods and, 55–56
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 104
King, Urail, 72, 78, 89
Klein, Joe, 92
Kodak, 234
Ku Klux Klan, 111
Laboratory experiments, 241–242
Labor markets, gender gap in, 34, 35
Lange, Andreas, 191
Lennon, John, 244
Leonard, Ken, 43
Leonhardt, David, 193
Levitt, Steven, 6, 92
Lightbulbs, adopting energy efficient, 166–168
Lincoln, Abraham, 111
List, John, 99–102
Literacy Express curriculum, 94, 103
Literacy rate, in U.S., 105
Loss aversion, 235–236
Loss framing, 80, 84, 234, 236
Loss incentives, 106
Lotteries
fundraising and, 176, 186, 187, 192
monetary incentives for student achievement and, 74, 77–78
preschool, 96–97
Lottery effect, 186, 187
Lucking-Reiley, David, 177
Lupe Fiasco, 153
Mad Men (television program), 56–57, 213
Martin, Trayvon, 123
Masai tribe, gender-based competition and, 41–46
Matching grants, 176, 180–185, 194
peer identity and, 183–184
Matrilineal society of the Khasi. See Khasi society
Mazarin (Cardinal), 189
McCallister, Mike, 222–223, 224–225, 238
McKinney, Lolitha and Dwayne, 96–97
Medicare, well being, cost control, and, 223–224
Men
gender gap in competitiveness and, 36–40, 41–46
See also Gender inequality (gender gap)
Mengele, Josef, 131
Mentoring program, to reduce risk of teen gun violence, 156–158
Mills, John, 190
“A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden . . . , and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public” (Swift), 189
Monetary incentives, 169
to encourage independent reading, 85
in field experiments in competitiveness, 44–45
to improve standardized testing outcomes, 79–85
to improve student performance, 73–79, 87–90
to induce changes in behavior, 29–31
for parents, 74, 78, 88–89
for parents of preschoolers, 95, 97, 103–104
for teachers, 85–87, 106
Moore, Dudley, 190
Morrison, Denise, 60
Motivation, 1–3
for charitable giving, 171–173, 192–193, 195
incentives and, 3–6, 9, 26–31
matching incentives to underlying, 26–31
self-interest and, 3–4
standardized test taking and, 83
Mullaney, Beatrice, 198
Mullaney, Brian, 14, 197, 198–202
advertising career, 200–201
as editorial cartoonist, 199–200
Smile Train and, 197, 202–206
WonderWork.org, 207–209
Mullaney, Joseph, 198
Mullaney, Maura, 198–199
Mullaney, Rosemary, 198
Muncy, Kevin, 72, 76–77, 89
Murder on the Orient Express (Christie), 190
National Climate Assessment, 166
National Public Radio (NPR) pledge drive, 180–181
National Science Foundation, 41
Natural selection, theory of, 33–34
Negative externality, 24–26
Negative incentives, 18, 21
Negotiation skills
women and price, 53–55, 60
women and salary, 35–38, 58–60
Netflix, 16–17, 213–217, 238
New York Athletic Club,
111
New York Times Magazine, 193
New York Times (newspaper), 143
No Child Left Behind, 66
NPR. See National Public Radio (NPR)
Nudges, public policy and, 164–165
Nudge (Thaler), 164
Nuisances, public policy and, 164–166
Nurture, gender gap and, 13. See also Culture
Obama, Barack, 28, 151
Obese people, economic discrimination against, 130–131
Obesity, school nutrition programs and, 158–162
Oliver, Jamie, 159
“Once and done” fundraising campaign, 204–206, 208–209
O’Neal, Shaquille, 105
Opt-in policies, organ donation and, 164
Opt-out policies, 14
direct-mail solicitations and, 204–206, 210
organ donation and, 164
Oracle, 149–150
organdonor.gov, 163
Organ donor lists, 162–165
Outcomes, shaped by incentives, 26–31
Parent Academy, 94–95, 97, 103–104
Parents
gender bias and, 61–62
monetary incentives for student achievement and, 74, 78, 88–89, 95, 97, 103–104
Pasteur, Louis, 67
Pay-for-performance schemes, teachers and, 85–87
Payne, William, 69–70
Pay-what-you-want pricing strategy, 14, 227–230
Peer identity, matching grants and, 183–184
Policy makers, gender gap and, 61–62
Positive incentives, 18, 21
Preschool. See Early childhood education
Price, lower, as inducement to change behavior, 168–169
Price, Michael, 133, 167–168, 191
Price negotiation, gender and, 53–55, 60
Price quotes
discrimination based on disability and, 124–127
ending economic discrimination and, 141–142
racial discrimination and, 135–138
Pricing methods, 16–17
electronic fingerprint and, 118–120
pay-what-you-want, 14, 227–230
for winery, 225–227
Productivity, framing and increasing, 234–236
Proposition 209, 140
Public education
dropout rates, 65
effort to improve student outcomes in, 66–68
financial reward of, 70–71
as laboratories of learning, 107
in low-income areas, 64, 65
monetary incentives for independent reading in, 85
monetary incentives for parents in, 74, 78, 88–89, 95, 97, 103–104
monetary incentives for standardized testing outcomes, 79–85
monetary incentives for student achievement, 72–79, 87–90
monetary incentives for teachers in, 85–87, 106
reform of, 104–106
spending on, 63, 65
student achievement in, 65–66
violence reduction programs in, 151–158
See also Chicago Heights (Illinois); Chicago Public Schools; Early childhood education
Public goods, women and, 55–56
Public goods game, 56