Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896, 11, 134, 139 policing, 212; aggressive, 164–72, 204; minor offenses used to arrest Blacks, 172–73; community safety and health programs, 35, 209; criminalizing of students, 181–82; differential, 61–62, 173, 175–76, 179, 181–82; DOJ investigations, 173–74; funding and militarizing of, 6, 82–83, 91, 187; “jump outs,” 35, 174–75; and law and order rhetoric, 4, 58, 63–64, 79, 97–98, 100, 179; local income from, 179–81; payouts to police victims, 181; racism/ brutality of, 58, 75, 173, 178; as source of Black grievance, 61–62; stand-your-ground laws, 184; stop-and-search policies, 174–76; and the War on Crime, 63, 83; zero-tolerance policies, 175. See also gun violence; incarceration, carceral policies
Polikoff, Alex, 67
Port Covington development, Baltimore, 36
poverty: Black, Du Bois’s analysis of, 41; concentrated, 6–7, 72–76, 107–9, 146–47; criminalizing, 6, 84; disproportionate impacts, 72, 153–55, 157; and income inequality, 56, 74–76, 118–19, 143–44, 149, 248n28; and redlining, 14–15, 19, 125; suburbanization of, 119. See also boundary maintenance; ghettoization; opportunity hoarding; residential caste system; segregation
Powderhorn neighborhood, Minneapolis, 178
predatory (subprime) lending, 7; and Black-white homeownership gap, 7; in Philadelphia, 125; and predatory installment contracts targeted to descendants, 125; and private equity investors, 125–6; and racial disparities in mortgage lending, 125
“predatory cities,” 126
prison industrial complex, 6, 84, 203
property ownership. See home ownership
public assistance (welfare): Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), 79; beneficiaries, diversity of, 101–2; under the Clinton administration, 92; under the Reagan administration, 81; reductions in, 88; relationship to tax policy, 81–82; SNAP food aid recipients, 102; “welfare queen” meme, 77–80
public housing: in Baltimore, 18–19; and Black displacement, 17; in Chicago, 53–54; Nixon’s moratorium on, 66; and reinforcement of anti-Black stereotypes, 54; scattered site approaches, 68; in St. Louis, 54; for those dispossessed by highway construction programs, 54
public schools: attendance, in the US, 139; closures in Black-majority neighborhoods, 122–23; in Connecticut, 132–33; as a state constitutional guarantee, 128; funding, 127–28; importance, 134, 139–40; in Louisville, 140–42; in Maryland, 37, 136–37; in New York State, 128–32; and opportunity hoarding, 140; special needs students, 148–49; state-mandated performance goals, 128. See also education policy
public transportation. See transportation policy
Purple Line rail project, Maryland, 25–26, 33–34
The Queen (Levin), 77–78
Rabin, Yale, 19
Race for Profit (Taylor), 126
race riots, 48, 58–59
racial equity and justice, 7–8, 36, 206, 208, 214
racism. See segregation; stereotyping; white supremacy
Rawlings-Blake, Stephanie, 27
Reagan, Ronald, 78–82, 90
Red Line Community Compact, Baltimore, 28
Red Line rail project, Baltimore, 23–25, 29, 33–34
Redlining Louisville online project, 142
redlining practices, 13–15, 19, 125
Red Summer of 1919, 48
Reeves, Richard, 112
repair, reparations. See abolition and repair
Republican Party, 12, 78–79
residential caste system: abolishing, possible approaches, 7–8, 202–4, 207; and characteristics of poor neighborhoods, 116; in Connecticut, 135–36; and educational inequalities, 134; hypersegregation, 55, 72–73, 79, 87, 109, 204–5; and the intersection of race, economic status and geography, 5; and the neighborhood effect, 161; and opportunity hoarding, 6, 110–11, 118–20, 200; and political leadership, 113; as predesigned and sustained, 110; purpose and underlying policies, 5, 36–37, 128, 199–201, 213–15. See also boundary maintenance; the hood (Black space, ghetto); white space
resistance, activism: and lawsuits to obtain integrated housing, 67–68; and uprisings and protests, 27,
restrictive covenants, 10, 13–15, 44. See also home ownership
Rhodes, James Ford, 43
Rice, Susan E., 214
Richmond, CA, 191–92, 194–98
Rittenhouse Square neighborhood, Philadelphia, 106–8
“Road to Nowhere,” Baltimore, 17–18, 30
Robinson, Donte, 105
Roland Park, Baltimore, 13–14
Romney, George, 64
Romney, Mitt, 65
Rosemont neighborhood, Baltimore, 17
Ross, Clyde, 53
Rothstein, Richard, 210
Rouse, James, 21
Rowland, Dick, 46
Rozier, Kaleemah, 177
Sampson, Robert, 110, 161
Sandtown-Winchester neighborhood, Baltimore: affordable housing initiative, 20; Gray’s public housing complex in, 26; impacts of redlining, 14; incarceration rates, 35; public transportation in, 22
San Francisco, CA, 311 line and mobile app, 188–89
Schenectady, NY school district, 129–30, 137
Schmoke, Kurt, 20–21
school resource officers (SROs), 181
schools. See education policy; public schools
school-to-prison pipeline, 6
School Within A School Elementary, Washington, DC, 148
Scott, Brandon, 36
Seattle, WA: affordable housing program, 151; racial equity analysis, 208; transfer of city property to Black organizations, 211
segregation: and actively countering, 215; architecture and persistence of, 10, 19, 51–52, 69–70, 106–7, 109, 111, 127–28; and systemic racism, 120–21, 200; and blame narratives, 48, 51, 54, 103, 157–61; dissimilarity measure for, 71; exclusion of Indigenous people in studies of, 71–72; hypersegregation, 55; in Louisville, 141; of middle- and upper-income Blacks, 55; in Minneapolis, 177–78; negative impacts on Black students, 159–60; under Reagan, 82; and systemic racism, 120–21, 200; and zero-sum politics, 109. See also ghettoization; opportunity hoarding; policing; residential caste system
“Segregation a Boon to Real Estate Sharps” (The Afro-American), 14–15
Segregation by Design (Trounstine), 120–21
Seventh Ward, Philadelphia, 40, 107
Sharkey, Patrick, 74, 110, 160
Shelley v. Kraemer, 1948, 56
“slum,” as a term, 40, 113. See also ghettoization; residential caste system
Smart on Crime Initiative, 96
Snyder, Rick, 155–56
The Souls of Black Folk (Du Bois), 41
South Side, Chicago (Black Belt), ghettoization of, 49–51
Stamped from the Beginning (Kendi), 85
stereotyping: and the absent Black father, 94–95; and blame narratives, 7, 51 54, 103, 157–61; confronting, 204; and criminalizing of students, 181–82; and dehumanization/fear of descendants, 2, 168–70, 179, 200–201; and inter-ethnic friction, 51; and the narrative of Black pathology, 101, 161; and “nigger moments,” 171; and the presumption of Black inferiority, 48, 85–86, 88, 175; the “racial problem,” 79; super-predator theory, 90, 94; and the thug label, 7, 27–28, 98, 170, 175, 179; as a vicious cycle, 49–54; “welfare queen” myth, 78–80, 82. See also ghetto mythology; policing; surveillance, stereotype-driven; white supremacy
Stevenson, Bryan, 84
St. Louis, MO, 54, 116
Stockton, CA, 209–10
stop-and-search policies, 174–76. See also policing
sundown towns, 185
super-predator theory, 94
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, 149
Sursum Corda housing project, Washington, DC, 117
surveillance, stereotype-driven: costs, 205; dismantling, 212–13; facial recognition technology, 190; and ghettoization, 6, 200; and Johnson’s War on Crime, 63; and “living while Black,” 182–83; nuisance laws, 186–87; of public housing tenants, 187–88; and quality-of-life complaints, 188–89; surveilla
nce apps, 190; use of listservs for, 189–90; and vigilantism, 183–85; and the War on Crime, 83. See also policing
Systemic racism. See residential caste
tax policy: and erosion of the tax bases, 119; and financial predation, 126; and gentrification, 252n79; housing tax breaks and credits, 34, 66, 112–13; property taxes, 127; relationship to welfare policies, 81–82; and tax base erosion, 119; as tool for containment and ghettoization, 53
Taylor, Breonna, 143, 172
Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta, 126
Taylor, Linda, 78–80
Tegeler, Phil, 135–36
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), 92, 147
Thomas, Clarence, 89
Thompson v. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 19 311 line (quality-of-life complaints), 188–89
“thug” label, 7, 27–28, 98, 170, 175, 179
Thurmond, Strom, 78
Tilly, Charles, 111
transportation policy: free bus lines, 211; in Maryland, 21–23; public transportation, 22, 29–30, 31–32, 123–24; and “slum clearance, 54; and unemployment, 29–30. See also boundary maintenance; highways and road systems; residential caste system
Trounstine, Jessica, 120
Troutt, David, 206
The Truly Disadvantaged (Wilson), 69–70, 86
Trump, Donald: and civil rights complaints, 30; Opportunity Zones, 124; suspension of the AFFH rule, 68–69; social welfare policy cuts, 99–100; white supremacist rhetoric, 4, 96–99
Tubbs, Michael D., 209–10
Tulsa Riot, 46, 47
Turner, Sylvester, 113–15
Two Trains Running (Wilson), 108
“underclass,” as a term, 86
unemployment rates, 23, 29–30, 61, 87, 99
universal basic income (UBI) programs, 209–10
Urban Outcasts (Wacquant), 86
Veterans Administration, exclusionary home loans, 52
vice districts, 44
Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty, 1926, 51–52
voting rights, 40, 207
Wacquant, Loïc, 86, 179
Wallace, George, 79
Walters, John P., 94
Ward Five, Houston, 108
Ward Three, Washington, DC, 115
War on Crime, 63, 84
War on Drugs, 20–21, 83, 90–91, 204
War on Poverty, 63
Warren, Earl, 139–40
Washington, Booker T., 44
Washington, DC: arrest rates, 172; elementary schools and neighborhoods, 115, 116; ghettoization policies, 89; inclusionary zoning ordinance, 115, 117; Individual Education Program (IEP), 148; policing in, 164–68, 175
Washington State, elementary schools and neighborhoods, 137
water and sewer systems, 119, 120–21
Watts neighborhood, Los Angeles, 58–59
West, Cornel, 86–87
West Baltimore, MD: Black population in, 16; blockbusting in, 15–16; dependence on bus system, 22; disinvestment and deindustrialization, 19; displacement of residents for unfinished road construction, 17; preparations for the Red Line in, 24; redlining and expulsive zoning in, 19; segregation and discrimination in, 37
West Hartford, CT, 135–36
West Houston, TX, 108
West Side, Cleveland, 168
white people, culturally dexterous, 102–3
white space: and white attitudes, assumed entitlements, 2, 66, 69, 84; and boundary maintenance, 4, 106–8, 112–18, 121–22, 183–85; and ghettoization, 41–42, 51–53, 106, 200; and preference for segregated housing, 50; and public school segregation, 138–39; Rittenhouse Square example, 106–7; and structural racism, 6, 15, 75, 79, 118–21, 200; sundown towns, 185; and territoriality/violence, 4, 45, 50, 53, 60–61, 105, 164, 183–905; white flight, 16–17, 68, 70, 136, 142. See also gentrification; the hood (Black space, ghetto); opportunity hoarding; residential caste system
The White Space” (Anderson), 183
white supremacy: and the “American way,” 49, 51, 71, 86, 140, 200–201; and The Birth of a Nation, 47–48; countering, 202, 214; and the Democratic Party, 100–101; and the erasure of Indigenous peoples, 71–72; exclusion and opportunity hoarding, 2, 5, 50, 66, 135–36; ideology of, enduring harm from, 84–86; institutionalizing of, 4, 49, 134, 200, 202; Kerner Commission findings, 60; the Ku Klux Klan, 47–48; and multiple oppressions, 202; and policing policies, 61–62; and the “race problem,” 79; and states’ rights, 80; and Trump’s rhetoric, 69, 99; violence and terrorist tactics, 4, 45, 48, 50, 53, 60–61, 164, 183–90. See also ghettoization; ghetto mythology; opportunity hoarding; policing; residential caste system; segregation; stereotyping
Wilkerson, Isabel, 110
Williams, Andre, 193
Wilson, August, 108
Wilson, Darren, 180
Wilson, William Julius, 69–70, 86, 88
Wilson, Woodrow, 47
Young, Bernard “Jack,” 27
zero-sum politics, 34, 70, 109, 128, 214–15
zoning, race-based: introduction in Baltimore, 10, 19; and mandatory inclusionary zoning, 109; as tool for ghettoization, 51–52
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Sheryll Cashin has written five books that implicate the US struggle with racism and inequality. Her books have been nominated for the NAACP Image Award for Nonfiction (2015) and the Hurston/Wright Legacy Award for Nonfiction (2005, 2009, 2018) and selected as a New York Times Book Review Editors’ Choice (2004). Cashin is the Carmack Waterhouse Professor of Law, Civil Rights and Social Justice at Georgetown University, where she teaches Constitutional Law and Race and American Law, among other subjects. She is an active member of the Poverty and Race Research Action Council. Cashin worked as a law clerk to US Supreme Court justice Thurgood Marshall and in the Clinton White House as an advisor on urban and economic policy, particularly concerning community development in inner-city neighborhoods. A contributing editor for Politico Magazine, she has written commentaries for the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Washington Post, Salon, The Root, and other media. Cashin was born and raised in Huntsville, Alabama, where her parents were civil rights and political activists. She currently resides in Washington, DC, with her husband and twin sons.
BEACON PRESS
Boston, Massachusetts
www.beacon.org
Beacon Press books are published under the auspices of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations.
© 2021 by Sheryll Cashin
All rights reserved
Text design and composition by Kim Arney
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Name: Cashin, Sheryll, author.
Title: White space, black hood : opportunity hoarding and segregation in the age of inequality / Sheryll Cashin.
Description: Boston : Beacon Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021015657 (print) | LCCN 2021015658 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780807000298 (hardcover) | ISBN 9780807000373 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Community development, Urban—United States. | African
American neighborhoods—United States. | Equality—United States. | United States—Race relations.
Classification: LCC HN90.C6 C383 2021 (gprint) | LCC HN90.C6 (ebook) |
DDC 307.1/4160973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021015657
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021015658
Map 1.1. The shaded areas track the percentage of Black people, segregated mainly in the “Black Butterfly.”
Map. 1.2. HOLC map. Redlined areas coincide with Black neighborhoods.
Map 1.3. Geographic Distribution of Residents by Race and Ethnicity, Baltimore City, 2011–2015
Map 3.1. Average Individual Income, 1970. City of Chicago, Relative to Seven County Metro Area.
Map 3.2. Average Individual Income, 2017. City of Chicago, Relative to Seven County Metro Area.
Map 5.1. US Cens
us 2000 and ACS 2009–2013 Map Compilation of Philadelphia
Map 5.2. Subsizided Housing in Harris County
Map 6.1. Comprehensive Opportunity with Non-White Population Overlay
Map 8.1. Minneapolis-Race, Minneapolis-Poverty
White Space, Black Hood Page 37