Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1777–1855), 141
“General and Logical Theory of Automata” (von Neumann), 32
genes and genetics, 8, 19, 27, 29, 71, 114–19, 123–24, 126, 128–29, 160, 185, 190, 202, 216, 224–25
genotype, and distinction from phenotype, 30–31, 117–19
Giant Brains (Edmund C. Berkeley), 108
Girshick, M. A., on duel theory, 146
glass, and evolution of technology, 202
Glicksberg, I. L., on duel theory, 146
global intelligence, coalescence of, 2, 10–13, 32, 112, 130, 158, 170, 190–92, 205, 209, 211. see also collective intelligence
God
and the argument from design, 116, 186
and Babbage, 35, 39, 41–42
and Butler, 187
and Erasmus Darwin, 20
and Garet Garrett, 221
and Hobbes, 1, 3, 5, 51, 227
and Leibniz, 35–36, 51
and Newton, 227
and Petty, 171
and Stapledon, 36, 195, 207
Gödel, Kurt (1906–1978), 49–50, 54, 57, 58, 70–71, 78, 94, 99–100, 120, 129–30, 167–68, 190. see also incompleteness
Gödel numbers, 49–50, 129–30
Gödel’s Theorems (Huber-Dyson), xi
Goldstine, Herman H., 44, 80–81, 90–91, 93, 99–100, 102, 121
Good, Irving J.
on consciousness and communication, 204–205
and cryptanalysis, 63, 65–66
on importance of IAS reports, 99
on meaning and economy, 171
on random network architecture, 12, 177
and Turing, 63, 67, 204
on ultraintelligent machines, 72, 170–71, 205
Göttingen, 53, 78, 79, 141
Gould, Stephen J., on evolutionary progress, 190
Gray, Asa (1810–1888), 186
Gray, Stephen, and electricity, 139
Green, Anne, and William Petty, 160
Greene, Robert (1558?–1592), 212
Grenade Warfare (Dyson), 221
Gresham College (London), 135
Growth and Encrease and Multiplication of Mankind (Petty), 162
Gulliksen, Tor, on Barricelli, 119, 120
Gunning, William F., 107
H
Haldane, J. B. S. (1892–1964), 174, 226
halting function (and halting problem), 57
Hamming, Richard, 107
hand grenades, in World War I, 193, 220–21
handshaking (telecommunications), 133
hardware and software, distinction between
biological, 29, 32, 108, 112, 123
technological, 9, 57, 68, 70, 83, 98, 112, 123, 149, 185
Hartree, Douglas R., 68
Harvard Mark I electronic calculator, 68
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 211
Heath Robinson (cryptanalytic machine), 64
heliography, 133
Henry, Joseph (1797–1878), 42, 142
Hien, Piet, 118
hierarchy
in biology, 7–8, 72, 123, 185, 192
in economics, 160, 171
of languages, 8, 121, 123, 133, 156, 160, 224
and Leviathan Project, 181–83
and mind, 72, 156, 185, 217, 224
and software, 121, 123, 160, 184–85, 224
and technology, 7–8, 72, 98, 123, 185, 192
Hilbert, David (1862–1943), 53–54, 57, 78, 228
Hilbert program, 53–54, 78
Hill, Rowland, 42
Hillis, W. Daniel (Danny), 131
on complexity and emergence, 9, 222–25
on computability and mind, 58
and Connection Machine, 86, 222
on memory, topology, and time, 216
Hilton, Peter J., 63–64, 67
Historical Narration Concerning Heresie (Hobbes), 2
History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837 (Fahie), 140
Hixon Symposium, 32, 109, 190
Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679) 1–7, 13, 133, 160
on arithmetic and mind, 6–7, 39, 49, 106, 159
on artificial life and intelligence, 1–2, 4, 6–7, 50
and Charles II, 4
on collective intelligence, 2–3, 11, 13
and Darwinian revolution, 4
and Descartes, 3–4
his enemies, 2–5
on God as a corporeal being, 3, 5, 51, 227
and Hooke, 136
and Leibniz, 35, 36, 39, 73
his Leviathan, 1–7, 11, 13, 136, 159
on mind and mechanism, 3–7, 35, 50–51, 73, 158
on money, 159–60
and Petty, 160
Hodges, Andrew, 67
Hollerith, Herman (1860–1929), 60
Hollerith (punched card) equipment, 60–62, 67, 144
Holzmann, Gerard, 133, 137, 139
homeostat (Ashby), 176
Honeywell-Sperry-Rand patent dispute, 69
Hooke, Robert (1635–1703), 133–38
as architect, 135
his arithmetic engine, 135
and Boyle, 134
and cellular structure, 135
and chronometers, 134, 136
on cryptography, 137
on Hobbes, 136
on Leibniz’s calculator, 135
on mind and brain, 136, 172
and Newton, 135–36
his philosophical algebra, 135
and Royal Society, 134, 135, 137
and telecommunications, 133–34, 137–38, 142
Hooke’s law (of elasticity), 135
horses, in World War I, 193
Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem, or Bedlam, 135
hot-potato routing doctrine (Baran), 12, 151
Hoyle, Sir Fred, 204
HTML (HyperText Markup Language), 225
Huber-Dyson, Verena, on Gödel, xi, 49
Hughes, Eric, on electronic banking, 167
human beings
and nature, ix, 13, 228
as nodes, 11, 191–92, 209–210
as symbionts, 10, 12, 120, 172, 223
human-machine synergy, 66
human-machine systems, at RAND, 178–84
Hungary, and sdentine talent, 77
Huxley, Thomas (1825–1895), 4, 18, 23, 25–26, 31, 116
Huygens, Christiaan (1629–1695), 38
hydrodynamics, 83–86, 107, 110
hydrogen bomb. See nuclear weapons
hypercydes (molecular), 191
I
I Ching, and Leibniz, 37
IAS. See Institute for Advanced Study
IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) computer, xii, 78–79, 91–92, 93–107
as ancestor of the microprocessor, 98, 203
and artificial life, xii, 111–18, 121, 124–26, 129, 192. see also Barricelli
construction and operation, 97–107, 111
and digital computing at RAND, 104, 148, 178
duplication of, 97, 98, 107
logical and physical architecture, 98, 99–107, 157
and nuclear weapons, 78–79, 91–92, 107, 111
and origins of IBM model 701, 91, 106
origins of, and weather prediction, 87–88
peripheral equipment, 98, 101–102, 106, 144
programming of, 102, 106–107, 114, 121, 130
progress reports, and impact of, 98, 99, 121
and random-access memory, 98, 103–105, 113
shakedown run, 78–79, 111
siblings and offspring, listed, 97
and von Neumann, 78–79, 87–88, 91–92, 97, 98–102, 106–108, 125, 153
IBM (International Business Machines) 12, 91, 103–104, 106, 122, 144, 148, 179. see also SAGE
and evolution of operating systems, 122, 189
and IAS computer project, 91, 106
and punched-card computing, 60, 78, 81, 82, 83, 106, 122, 144
and von Neumann, 91
IBM computers: model 650, 122; model 701, 91, 106, 178; model 7
04, 118, 184; model 7090, 151, 182
iconoscope, 85, 104
ideas. see also consciousness; meaning; mind
Darwinian evolution of, 28, 184
and formal logic, 38, 43, 46, 49, 129
nature of, 136, 158, 225
IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) radar, 104
Illinois, University of, 107
immortality, and composite organisms, 175, 191, 210
and non-Darwinian evolution, 31
improbability, and origins of life, 29–30, 112, 177
incompleteness (mathematical), 49–50, 53–54, 70, 72, 78, 120, 167, 228
Industrial Revolution, 21–22, 134
infinity, and finite-state machines, 10, 35, 43, 56, 130, 190
information. see also bandwidth; bits; communication; cybernetics; telecommunication
and cybernetics, 6, 98, 101
defined, by Bateson, 167
flow, in data networks, 12, 110, 150, 158–59, 205
mathematical theory of, 110, 153, 155
and meaning, 8, 155, 158, 167, 171, 184–85
and money, 162, 165
and origins of life, 12, 29
insects, 8, 13, 129, 170, 174, 210
Instinct and Reason (Smee), 45, 48
Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), Princeton, N.J.
electronic computer project. See IAS computer
founding and organization, 79, 94–97, 145
grounds, offices, and housing, 93–98
and Princeton University, 79, 96, 97, 99, 107
integrated circuits, 108, 169, 192. see also microprocessors
and Boolean algebra, 44
predicted by Feynman, 174
proliferation of, 8, 13, 109, 203
Intel Corporation, 8, 203
intelligence. see also artificial intelligence; collective intelligence; global intelligence; mind
alien, in form or scale, 7, 187–88, 217, 224, 228
and communications bandwidth, 204–205
and computability, 58, 70, 72, 216
degeneration of, 224, 226
distributed, 149, 208–210
and economic systems, 153, 159, 167–68, 170–71
emergence of, 9, 12, 222–24
and evolution, 18, 31, 115–16, 124, 130, 185–90, 228
as an evolutionary process, 8, 71, 115, 228
extraterrestrial, 199–200, 204, 210, 224
mechanical, 70, 211
mystery of, 73, 213
of nature, 13, 18, 35, 186–87, 227, 228
origins and evolution of, 75, 82, 177, 179, 188, 214, 222–24
and patience, 55
species-level, 18, 115–16, 186–88
“Intelligence as an Emergent Behavior; or, the Songs of Eden” (Hillis), 222–24
International Congress of Mathematicians, 53
International Telecommunications Union, 167
Internet, 10–12, 123, 168, 208, 215, 225
as habitat for digital organisms, 123, 126–28, 170
prehistory of, at RAND, 146–52
intuition, 11, 50, 72, 160
J
Jacquard, Joseph-Marie (1752–1834), 40
Jacquard loom, 40, 59, 60, 77
jargon, religious, 3
Java (programming language), 123, 128
Jenkinson, Hilary, on tallies, 162–63
Jevons, William Stanley (1835–1882), 59, 171
JOHNNIAC (RAND), 97, 104, 148
Jones, Henry Festing (1851–1928), 16–17, 18, 27
junk, as evolutionary reserve, 215
Jurassic Park (scenario), 127
K
kayak, as architectural metaphor, 214
Keck, Donald, on optical fiber, 8
Keir, James, 21
Kennan, George F., 94
King-Hele, Desmond, 23
Kleene, Stephen, and general recursiveness, 57
knowledge, 187, 189
Ampère’s classification of, 6, 161–62
evolution of, 159, 183–84
H. G. Wells on the globalization of, 10–11
and intuition, 50
and wisdom, 159
Kozo-Polyansky, Boris M. (1890–1957), 111–13
Krause, Ernst, 23
L
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1744–1829), 17, 20, 23, 27, 30
Lamarckian evolution, 20, 29–31, 113
Language and languages. see also formal systems; operating systems; codes and coding
in biology, 123–24, 128–29, 190, 225
of the brain, 44–45, 156, 168–69, 225
convergence of, 8, 13, 129
and culture, 211, 217
evolution of, 120, 128, 156, 160, 190, 224–26
extinction of, 120, 122, 224
genetic, 27, 119, 124, 128–29, 190
hierarchies of, 8, 118–19, 121, 156, 160, 214
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), 225
Java, 123, 128
natural 211, 218, 225
object-oriented, 123, 189
origins of, 71, 82, 129, 225
programming, 114, 122, 123
statistical 44–45, 156, 168–69, 225
as symbionts, 120, 122, 172, 225
translation, mind-machine, 214, 218, 224–26
universal, frequency-coded, 225–26
Laplace, Pierre Simon (1749–1827), 141
Last and first Men (Stapledon), 198–201, 217
last centimeter problem (telecommunications), 208
last mile problem (telecommunications), 206
law of requisite variety (Ashby), 176–77, 184
Laws of Thought (Boole), 41, 43–45, 49
learning. see also knowledge; meaning; self-organizing systems; wisdom
and entropy, 170
in packet-switching networks, 151
Turing on, 70–71
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von (1646–1716), 9, 35–38
and artificial intelligence, 50, 73
and Babbage, 39, 43
and binary arithmetic, 37, 89
his binary computing machine, 7, 37, 103
on the brain, 45
his decimal calculating machine, 36–37, 81, 135
and digital coding, 9, 143
and formal systems, 7, 9, 36–38, 43, 46, 49, 50, 71
and Gödel 50
and Hobbes, 7, 35, 39, 50–51, 73
and the law, 36
and Newton, 35, 36
on mind, mechanism, and God, 35, 36, 50–51, 73
his principle of maximum diversity, 35
Leipzig, University of, 36
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), 75
Leviathan
and age of digital computers, 6–7, 9, 11, 13, 136
in Old Testament, 1, 2
and Ouroboros, 227
Leviathan (Hobbes), 1–7, 11, 13, 136, 159
Leviathan Drawn out with a Hook (Ross), 2
Leviathan Project (System Development Corporation), 178, 181–84, 189
Leyden jar (capacitor), 139
lichens, 12, 112, 129
life. see also argument from design; artificial life; evolution; origins of life; self-organizing systems; symbiogenesis; symbiosis
A-life and B-life, 129
as a collective intelligence, 18, 187, 217
and complexity, 13, 28, 160, 190
and computability, 7, 58
on different scales, 7, 174, 210
extraterrestrial 13, 113, 190, 200–202, 209–210
goal of? 170–72, 201
linear or parallel? 189
nature of, 5, 7, 12, 30, 93, 117, 129, 216
Life of Erasmus Darwin (Krause and Darwin), 23
Life and Habit (Butler), 27, 217
Lincoln Laboratory (MIT), 144, 179, 184
logic. see also artificial intelligence; formal systems; Turing machine
Boolean, 10, 43–45, 65–67
and economics, 153–54, 167–68
electromechanical 59, 94, 142
electronic, proliferation of, 6–8, 39, 108, 130, 142
mathematical 49–50, 53–58, 73, 130, 157, 167–68, 189–90, 218
mechanical 39, 58–59
and mind, 6–7, 35–38, 46–47, 50–51, 72–73, 110, 183, 218
and neurology, 46–48, 89, 108, 156–57, 177
probabilistic, or fuzzy, 44, 108
symbolic, 7, 36–37, 43, 49
“Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity” (McCulloch and Pitts), 89
“Logical Machines” (Peirce), 59
London, plague (1665) and fire (1666), 2, 134
London Bankers’ Clearing House, 171
London Mathematical Society, 69
longevity, of composite organisms, 175, 191, 210
Los Alamos (nuclear weapons laboratory), 76, 78, 79, 81, 82–83, 88, 92, 97, 107, 111
Louis XVI, king of France (1754–1793), 138
Lovelace, Augusta Ada, Countess of (1816–1852), née Byron, 41
Luck, or Cunning? (Butler), 18, 27–28, 115
Lull, Ramon (1235–1315), 47
Lunar Society of Birmingham, 21, 32, 33
M
machine guns, 220
machines. see also artificial intelligence; artificial life; automata; Can machines think?; digital computers; electronics; human-machine systems; self-organizing systems; telecommunications; Turing machine
abandoned, 93
evolution of, and Erasmus Darwin, 21
human subservience to, 25–26, 33, 226–27
Lamarckian tendencies among, 30
Leibniz and Babbage on coded descriptions of, 38
miniaturization of, 15, 173–74
relational and differential (Smee), 47, 171
sanctuary from, 17
self-reproducing, 31, 76, 108–109, 172, 175, 185, 191
symbiosis with, 10, 12, 172, 179, 224, 226–27
ultraintelligent, 72, 171, 205, 209
virtual, 125, 127, 128, 185
in World War I, 193, 221
MacPhail, Malcolm, on Turing, 58
Macy (Cybernetics) conferences, 101
magic, and artificial intelligence, 212–14
Malebranche, Nicolas (1638–1715), 181
Malthus, Thomas (1766–1834), 162
Manchester Mark I (and “baby” Mark I) computer, 67, 70, 104
Manchester University, 69–70, 104–105, 118, 119, 204
Mandl, Alex, on AT&T, 9
Manhattan Project, 76. see also Los Alamos
mapping (of information), 38, 133, 137–38, 216, 225, 228
between genotype and phenotype, 118–19, 216, 225
Marchant (mechanical calculator), 84
Margulis, Lynn, 12, 113
Marquand, Allan (1853–1924), 58–59
Marschak, Jacob, on von Neumann, 154
materialism, of Hobbes, 3, 5, 51, 227
Mathematical Analysis of Logic (Boole), 43
Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (von Neumann), 77
mathematical tables, and digital computing, 39–40
Darwin Among the Machines Page 38