If dugouts were built any higher, notes baseball stadium manufacturer Dale K. Elrod, the sight lines in back of the dugout would be blocked. Baseball parks would either have to eliminate choice seats behind the dugout or sell tickets with an obstructed view at a reduced price.
If dugouts were built lower, either the players would not be able to see the game without periscopes or they wouldn’t have room to stretch out between innings.
Submitted by Alan Scothon of Dayton, Ohio.
Why Do Trains with More Than One Locomotive Often Have One (or More) of the Locomotives Turned Backwards?
Diesel locomotives work equally well traveling in either direction. Robert L. Krick, deputy associate administrator for technology development at the Federal Railroad Administration, wrote Imponderables that
Locomotives are turned on large turntables, or on “wye” or “loop” tracks. Railroads avoid unnecessary turning of locomotives because the procedure takes time. The locomotives being turned and the employees turning them could be employed for more constructive purposes.
When locomotives are assembled for a train, if one already faces forward it is selected for the lead position. The others will work equally well headed in either direction; they are usually coupled together without regard for their orientation.
If a group of locomotives is assembled for more than one trip, the cars will often be arranged with the rear locomotive of the group facing the rear. That group of locomotives can then be used on another train going in either direction without any turning or switching.
Using this method, a train can be returned to its original destination on the same track without any turning. Bob Stewart, library assistant at the Association of American Railroads, explains how:
When a train reaches the end of its run and is to return in the direction from which it came, the engineer moves to the cab at the other end. The locomotive can be coupled and switched to a parallel track, run back towards what was the rear of the train and switched back to the original track.
Submitted by Randy W. Gibson of Arlington, Virginia.
Why Is There Steam Coming Up from the Streets of New York?
Historically, of course, the rising steam served the most important purpose of providing menacing atmosphere in Taxi Driver and other movies set in New York City. But we still see steam rising out of manhole covers in Manhattan all the time. What causes it?
The biggest source of the steam is New York’s utility, Consolidated Edison, which still generates enough steam to service over 2,000 customers in Manhattan. Steam heat is used only in tall buildings and manufacturing plants; the equipment necessary to generate steam power is too large and inefficient for small businesses or modest residential dwellings.
When a small leak occurs in a steam pipe, the vapor must go somewhere. Heat rises and looks for a place to escape: Manhole covers are the most likely egress point for steam. Martin Gitten, Con Edison’s assistant director for public information, told Imponderables that when a big leak occurs, Con Ed must put tall cones over the manhole covers so that the steam is vented above the level of vehicles. Otherwise, unsuspecting drivers would feel as if they were driving through a large cumulus cloud.
Another source for steam rising out of the streets of New York is excess moisture condensing underground. The excess moisture may emanate from small leaks in city water mains, runoff from heavy rainfalls, or least pleasant to contemplate, sewer backups.
Why do these liquids rise up as steam? Because they come in contact with the scalding hot steam equipment below ground.
Submitted by Chris McCann of New York, New York.
How Did They Keep Beer Cold in the Saloons of the Old West?
Just about any way they could. In the nineteenth century, guzzlers didn’t drink beer as cold as they do now (the English often imbibed pints of ale warm, for goodness’ sake, and still do—as do the Chinese) but even grizzled cowboys preferred their brew cool.
In colder areas of the West, saloons used to gather ice from frozen lakes in the winter. John T. McCabe, technical director of the Master Brewers Association of the Americas, says that the harvest was stored in ice houses, “where the blocks of ice were insulated with sawdust. This method would keep ice for months.”
Even where it wasn’t cold enough for ice to form, many saloons in the Old West had access to cool mountain streams. Historical consultant William L. Lang wrote Imponderables that saloon workers would fill a cistern with this water to store and cool barrels of beer.
And if no cold mountain stream water was available? Phil Katz, of the Beer Institute, says that up until about 1880, many saloons built a root cellar to house beer. Usually built into the side of a hill, root cellars could keep beer below 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
And what if you wanted cold beer at home? According to Lang, “Beer was served in buckets or small pails, and often kids delivered the beer home from the saloons.” Consumers in the mid-nineteenth century thought no more of bringing home “take-out beer” than we would think of ordering take-out Chinese food.
Beer expert W. Ray Hyde explains that we needn’t feel sorry for the deprivation of Old Westerners before the days of refrigeration. In fact, those might have been the “good old days” of American beer:
Beer in the Old West wasn’t cold in the modern sense of the word—but it was refreshingly cool. Evaporation kept it that way. Beer in those days was packaged in wooden barrels, and the liquid would seep through the porous wood to the outside of the barrel, where it would evaporate. And basic physics explains the cooling effect of evaporation.
Also, it should be noted that beer then was not artificially carbonated. The slight natural carbonation required only that it be cool to be refreshing and tasty. Modern beer, with its artificial carbonation, needs to be very cold to hide the sharp taste of the excess carbon dioxide.
Submitted by Dr. Robert Eufemia of Washington, D.C.
What Is the Official Name of the Moon?
Along with our correspondent, we’ve never known what to call our planet’s satellite. Moon? The moon? moon? the moon? Dorothy?
We know that other planets have moons. Do they all have names? How do astronomers distinguish one moon from another?
Whenever we have a problem with matters astronomical, we beg our friends at two terrific magazines—Astronomy and Sky & Telescope—for help. As usual, they took pity on us.
Astronomy’s Robert Burnham, like most senior editors, is picky about word usage:
The proper name of our sole natural satellite is “the Moon” and therefore…it should be capitalized. The 60-odd natural satellites of the other planets, however, are called “moons” (in lower case) because each has been given a proper name, such as Deimos, Amalthea, Hyperion, Miranda, Larissa, or Charon.
Likewise, the proper name for our star is “the Sun” and that for our planet is “Earth.” or “the Earth.” It’s OK, however, to use “earth” in the lower case whenever you use it as a synonym for “dirt” or “ground.”
Alan MacRobert, of Sky & Telescope, adds that Luna, the Moon’s Latin name, is sometimes used in poetry and science fiction, but has never caught on among scientists or the lay public: “Names are used to distinguish things from each other. Since we have only one moon, there’s nothing it needs to be distinguished from.”
Submitted by A. P. Bahlkow of Sudbury, Massachusetts.
Why Is Rhode Island Called an Island When It Obviously Isn’t an Island?
Let’s get the island problem licked first. No, technically, the whole state isn’t an island, but historians are confident that originally “Rhode Island” referred not to the whole territory but to what we now call Aquidneck Island, where Newport is located. Christine Lamar, an archivist for the Rhode Island State Archives, endorses this view.
Why “Rhode”? Lame theories abound. One is that the state was named after a person named Rhodes (although any meaningful details about this person are obscure). Another supposition is that “Rhode Island” was an An
glicization of “Roode Eyelandt,” Dutch for “red island.” The Dutch explorer Adriaen Block noted the appearance of a reddish island in the area, and maps of the mid-seventeenth century often refer to the area as “Roode Eyelandt.”
But all evidence points to the fact that Block was referring not to the landlocked mass of Rhode Island, nor even to the island of Aquidneck, but to an island farther west in the bay. And besides, written references to “Rhode Island” abound long before “Roode Eyelandt.”
Most likely, “Rhode Island” was coined by explorer Giovanni da Verrazano, who referred in his diary of his 1524 voyage to an island “about the bigness of the Island of Rhodes,” a reference to its Greek counterpart. A century later, Roger Williams referred to “Aqueneck, called by us Rhode Island…”
We do know that in 1644, the Court of Providence Plantation officially changed the name of Aquidneck (variously spelled “Aquedneck” and “Aquetheck”—spelling was far from uniform in those days) to “The Isle of Rhodes, or Rhode Island.” The entire colony, originally settled in 1636, was known as “Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.”
When Rhode Island attained statehood, its name was shortened to Rhode Island, befitting its diminutive size.
Submitted by Tony Alessandrini of Brooklyn, New York. Thanks also to Troy Diggs of Jonesboro, Arkansas.
Why Do Blacktop Roads Get Lighter in Color As They Age?
Our correspondent ponders:
When fresh blacktop roads are laid, they are pure black. Why is it that after a few years, they turn gray? You can notice this when they patch potholes. The filler material is a dark contrast to the surrounding road. Even last year’s patched potholes are grayer than the new blacktop patches.
You would think dirt and “worn rubber dust” would make the road blacker, not lighter.
There is only one flaw in your question, Bill. Blacktop isn’t pure black, as Amy Steiner, program director of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, explains:
The primary ingredients in “blacktop” are asphalt and stones. Asphalt coats the stones and gives the pavement its black color. As traffic passes over the pavement, the asphalt coating on the surface stones wears off. Since stones are generally lighter in color than asphalt, the road becomes lighter in color.
The other main reason that blacktop lightens in color is oxidation. As the road surface is always exposed to the ambient air, it naturally becomes lighter.
As for what happens to the black tire tread that comes off vehicles, may I suggest you read a stimulating, brilliantly written dissertation on the subject in a wonderful book, Why Do Clocks Run Clockwise? and Other Imponderables. The name of the author escapes us at the moment, but we’re sure your local bookstore employee will happily lead you to the HarperPerennial book, which, we recollect, is very reasonably priced.
Submitted by Bill Jelen of Akron, Ohio.
Why Must We Push Both the “Record” and “Play” Switches to Record on an Audio Tape Recorder, and Only the “Record” on the VCR?
All of our electronics sources agreed that consumers prefer “one-touch recording” for both audio and video recorders. All agreed that there is no difference in the performance of decks with one-touch or two-touch controls. So why do we have to go the extra step on the audio recorder? Audio recorders predate video recorders, and the history of the audio tape deck gives us our answer. Thomas Mock, director of engineering for the Electronics Industries Association, explains:
In most earlier audio recorders, the switches were mechanically coupled to the tape drive mechanism. The RECORD button was designed so that it was not possible to accidentally go into the record mode while playing a tape. In order to record, the RECORD button had to be depressed first, allowing it to sense if the cassette ERASE tab was present. Then it would permit closure of the play button.
Modern recorders, audio as well as VCRs, use servo controls to engage the tape mechanism and sensors to detect if erasure/recording is allowed. With these devices, “one button” recording is possible from the control panel or via an infrared remote or by a present timer.
William J. Goffi, of the Maxell Corporation, told Imponderables that many audio recorder manufacturers have seen the light and are incorporating user-friendly one-touch recording.
Submitted by Richard Stans of Baltimore, Maryland.
How Do Bus Drivers Get into a Bus When the Door Handle Is Inside the Bus?
It all depends upon the bus. According to Robin Diamond, communications manager of the American Bus Association, many newer buses have a key lock that will open the door automatically when a key is turned. Mercedes-Benz buses, according to their press information specialist, John Chuhran, have a hydraulic door release that can be activated “by a key located in an inconspicuous place.” Most often, the “inconspicuous place” is the front of the bus rather than the door itself.
Instead of a key-activated mechanism, some buses have a handle or air-compression button located in the front of the bus. Others have a toggle switch next to the door that opens it. Along with these high-tech solutions, we heard about some other strategies for bus drivers who may have locked themselves out. Karen E. Finkel, executive director of the National School Transportation Association, was kind enough to supply them:
1. Enter through the rear emergency door, which does have a handle.
2. Push the door partially closed, but not enough for the door mechanism to catch, so that the door can be pulled open.
3. Use your hands to pry open the door.
Why do we think that method #3 is used altogether more often than it is supposed to be?
Submitted by Harry C. Wiersdorfer of Hamburg, New York. Thanks also to Natasha Rogers of Webster, New York.
Why Is the Lowest-Ranked Admiral Called a Rear Admiral?
If you think that we are going to joke about the fact that a rear admiral is the lowest-ranked admiral because he tends to sit on his duff all day, you severely underestimate us. Puns are the refuge of the witless.
Dr. Regis A. Courtemanche, professor of history at the C.W. Post campus of Long Island University, wrote to Imponderables that the term originally referred to the admirals who commanded English naval fleets in the seventeenth-century Dutch Wars. The fleets were divided into three segments: the vanguard (the ships in front), the center, and the rear. “So,” Courtemanche concludes, “the term lies in the fact that the lowest ranking admiral controlled the rear of the fleet at sea.”
Submitted by Peter J. Scott of Glendale, California.
Why Was April 15 Chosen as the Due Date for Taxes?
It wasn’t ever thus. In fact, the original filing date for federal taxes, as prescribed in the Revenue Act of 1913, was March 1. A mere five years later, the deadline moved back; until the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was approved on August 16, 1954, midnight vigils were conducted on March 15. Taxpayers who paid on a fiscal year were also given a month’s extension in 1954, so that they now filed on the fifteenth day of the fourth month, instead of the third month, after their fiscal year was over. In fact, all federal returns, with the exception of estates and trusts, are now due on April 15, or three and one-half months after the end of the fiscal year.
Were these dates plucked out of thin air? Not really. The IRS wants to process returns as early in the year as possible. In the 1910s, when most tax returns were one page long, it was assumed that after a wage earner totaled his or her income, the return could be filled out in a matter of minutes. Why wait until after March 1? As anyone who now is unfortunate enough to make a so-called living knows, the IRS form isn’t quite as simple as it used to be. The 1040 is no easier to decipher than the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Kevin Knopf, of the Department of the Treasury, was kind enough to send us transcripts of the hearings before the House Ways and Means Committee in 1953 pertaining to the revision of the Internal Revenue Service Code. Now we don’t necessarily expect the contents of all hearings in the legislature to match the Lincoln-Douglas de
bates in eloquence and passion, but we were a little surprised to hear the original impetus for the legislation cited by a sponsor of the 1954 IRS revision, the Honorable Charles E. Bennett of Florida, who argued for changing the due date from March 15 to April 15:
The proposal to change the final return date from March 15 to April 15 was first called to my attention by the Florida Hotel Association. They advised that many taxpayers must cut their winter vacations short to return to their homes and to prepare their tax returns for filing before March 15. They pointed out that changing the deadline to April 15 would help their tourist trade as well as that of other winter tourist areas in the United States such as California, Arizona, Maine, and Vermont.
This is why we changed the tax code? Probably not. A succession of witnesses before the House Ways and Means Committee—everybody from the Georgia Chamber of Commerce to the American Federation of Labor to the American Cotton Manufacturers Institute—argued for moving back the date of tax filing. In descending order of importance, here were their arguments.
Do Penguins Have Knees? Page 3