20 (Cadinu et al., 2005), p. 574.
21 (Logel et al., 2008). See also (Davies et al., 2002) who found that gender stereotypes were activated in women who saw gender-stereotyped advertisements, compared with controls, and that this activation predicted maths underperformance.
22 (Beilock, Rydell, & McConnell, 2007; Schmader & Johns, 2003). For review see (Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008).
23 (Johns, Inzlicht, & Schmader, 2008).
24 For example (Aronson et al., 1999; Croizet et al., 2004).
25 Presenting the test as gender-neutral (i.e., males and females score equally) enhances women’s performance (for example [Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999]), and does not have the same detrimental effect on working memory (for example [Johns, Inzlicht, & Schmader, 2008]).
26 (Seibt & Förster, 2004).
27 (Gladwell, 2008), pp. 87, 87, and 88, respectively.
28 See (Nguyen & Ryan, 2008) who concluded from their meta-analysis that low maths-identified women are the least affected by stereotype threat. Interestingly, they found that moderately identified women are the most affected (more so than high-identified females), although they note that there is some inconsistency in how ‘identification’ is defined and operationalised.
29 For instance (Beilock, Rydell, & McConnell, 2007) found that stereotype threat most affects maths problems that rely more heavily on working-memory resources.
30 These numbers, from the National Science Foundation, are cited in (Ceci, Williams, & Barnett, 2009).
31 (Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2000).
32 (Schmader, Johns, & Barquissau, 2004).
33 (Kiefer & Sekaquaptewa, 2007).
34 See (Blanton, Crocker, & Miller, 2000; Marx, Stapel, & Muller, 2005). For effect of ‘closeness’ of the model, see (Marx et al., unpublished manuscript), who found that women exposed to a highly maths-competent, socially ‘close’, female role model performed better on a maths test than women exposed to a socially ‘distant’, but equally competent, female role model. (Lockwood, 2006) found that women in particular benefit by having an inspiring female role model. In general, research into social comparison processes finds that, among other factors, our self-evaluations and behaviour are more likely to assimilate to another person to the extent that we feel psychologically similar to them. Otherwise the standard set by the other person becomes a contrast against which our own self-evaluation and behaviour reacts. See, for example (Mussweiler, Rüter, & Epstude, 2004).
35 (Marx & Roman, 2002; McIntyre et al., 2005; McIntyre, Paulson, & Lord, 2003).
36 (Josephs et al., 2003; Newman, Sellers, & Josephs, 2005).
37 See (Rogers, 1999), pp. 75–85. It’s also worth noting that although some have argued that the relationship between testosterone levels and competition is different in women and men, there are currently too few studies available with women to draw a fair comparison. See (van Anders & Watson, 2006), pp. 215–220.
38 (Sherwin, 1988).
39 (Rogers, 1999), p. 83.
40 (Josephs et al., 2003), p. 162.
41 (Huguet & Régner, 2007; Neuville & Croizet, 2007). Also (Ambady et al., 2001) found stereotype threat effects in lower-elementary and middle school girls, although unexpectedly upper-elementary girls did better when gender identity was salient.
42 (Nosek et al., 2009), p. 10597. These relationships held even controlling for a general indicator of social gender inequality.
4. I DON’T BELONG HERE
1 (Hines, 2004), p. vii.
2 (Haslanger, 2008), p. 211.
3 Quoted in (McCrum, 2008) p. 22.
4 (Mullarkey, 2004), pp. 369 and 370, respectively.
5 (Mullarkey, 2004), pp. 373 and 374.
6 (Pinker, 2008), p. 5.
7 (Steele, 1997), p. 618.
8 (Murphy, Steele, & Gross, 2007).
9 (Davies et al., 2002).
10 (Davies, Spencer, & Steele, 2005).
11 (Gupta & Bhawe, 2007), p. 74.
12 A point made by (Cheryan et al., 2009).
13 (Cheryan et al., 2009).
14 I. J. Seligsohn, Your Career in Computer Programming (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1967), cited in (Gürer, 2002a), p. 176.
15 (Gürer, 2002b), p. 120.
16 Sapna Cheryan, personal communication, November 25, 2009.
17 (Cheryan et al., 2009), p. 1058.
18 (Spelke & Grace, 2006), p. 726.
19 The criteria were changed to downplay prior programming ability – which was shown not to be a predictor of success in the CS major, and instead focus on ‘indicators of future visionaries and leaders in computer science.’ (Blum & Frieze, 2005), p. 117. The study referred to was conducted by Jane Margolis and Allen Fisher, reported in Unlocking the Clubhouse (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002).
20 (Blum & Frieze, 2005), quotations from pp. 113 and 114.
21 (Good, Rattan, & Dweck, unpublished).
22 (Haslanger, 2008), p. 212.
23 (Correll, 2001), p. 1724.
24 (Correll, 2004), p. 102.
25 (Pronin, Steele, & Ross, 2004).
26 The article was C. P. Benbow and J. C. Stanley, ‘Sex differences in mathematical ability: fact or artifact?’ Science 210 (1980), pp. 262–1264.
27 Quoted in (Pronin, Steele, & Ross, 2004), p. 159.
28 (Hewlett, Servon et al., 2008), p. 11.
29 (Hewlett, Luce, & Servon, 2008), p. 114.
30 (Hewlett, Servon et al., 2008), quotations from pp. 11 and 12.
31 For instance, from their comprehensive review of possible biological and social factors contributing to female underrepresentation in science, Stephen Ceci and colleagues conclude that the evidence for the role of biological factors is ‘contradictory and inconclusive.’ They suggest that the evidence points most strongly to the role of women’s preferences – which they note could either be seen as free choices or constrained ‘choices’ – with a secondary factor being poorer performance on gatekeeper tests, which they regard as being more likely due to sociocultural than biological factors (Ceci, Williams, & Barnett, 2009), p. 218.
5. THE GLASS WORKPLACE
1 (Fara, 2005). See pp. 93–96.
2 (Barres, 2006), p. 134.
3 (Schilt, 2006), p. 476.
4 See also data and arguments provided by (Valian, 1998).
5 (Steinpreis, Anders, & Ritzke, 1999). Estimated from figure 5, p. 520.
6 (Steinpreis, Anders, & Ritzke, 1999), p. 523.
7 (Davison & Burke, 2000). However, sex discrimination was greater when less job-relevant information was available.
8 (Heilman, 2001), p. 659.
9 (Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997).
10 Interestingly, when evaluations were made on vague, subjective scales (very poorly to very well, or very unlikely to very likely), Katherine was preferred for the chief of staff position, while Kenneth was favoured as a secretary. However, the researchers suggested that this was because Katherine was seen as being a good candidate for the masculine job for a woman, while Kenneth was perceived as an impressive potential secretary for a man. When more objective scales were used that forced the raters to put numbers and percentiles to their evaluations, the pattern reversed.
11 (Correll, Benard, & Paik, 2007). Participants were undergraduates, told that their input would be used along with other information in real hiring decisions.
12 See, for example (Crosby, Williams, & Biernat, 2004) and other articles in the same issue.
13 (Bledsoe, 1856), pp. 224 and 225.
14 (Rudman & Kilianski, 2000).
15 See, for example (Rudman, 1998; Rudman & Glick, 1999, 2001). For summary of research suggesting that warmth and competence are fundamental dimensions of social perception, see (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007).
16 A phrase coined by Janet Holmes, author of Gendered Talk, cited by (Cameron, 2007), p. 141.
17 M. Dowd, ‘Who’s hormonal? Hillary or Dick?’ New York Times, February 8, 2006, p. A21, quoted by study authors (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008), p. 268.
&n
bsp; 18 (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2004). Interestingly, in this study gender per se was not a factor for discrimination, although it’s possible that this was because of the phenomenon described in note 10.
19 (Rudman et al., manuscript submitted for publication).
20 (Norton, Vandello, & Darley, 2004).
21 (Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005), p. 479.
22 (Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005), p. 478, references removed.
23 (Phelan, Moss-Racusin, & Rudman, 2008), p. 408.
24 Quoted in (Monastersky, 2005), para. 42.
25 (Bolino & Turnley, 2003; Bowles, Babcock, & Lai, 2007; Butler & Geis, 1990; Heilman & Chen, 2005; Heilman et al., 2004; Sinclair & Kunda, 2000).
26 (Heilman, 2001), p. 670.
27 (Cameron, 2007), pp. 134 and 135.
28 (Ryan et al., 2007), p. 270.
29 See (Ashby, Ryan, & Haslam, 2007; Haslam & Ryan, 2008). Other data forthcoming, summarised in (Ryan et al., 2007), pp. 270 and 271.
30 (Uhlmann & Cohen, 2005).
31 (Williams, 1992), p. 256.
32 (Wingfield, 2009).
33 (Gorman & Kmec, 2007), p. 839.
34 Quoted in (Allen, 2009), para. 7.
35 (Hersch, 2006), p. 352.
36 (Liben, Bigler, & Krogh, 2001).
6. XX-CLUSION AND XXX-CLUSION
1 Quoted in (MacAdam, 1914), para. 12.
2 (Glick & Fiske, 2007), p. 162.
3 (Glick & Fiske, 2007), p. 163.
4 Quoted in (MacAdam, 1914), para. 13.
5 (Selmi, 2005), pp. 41 and 25, respectively.
6 (Selmi, 2005), p. 31.
7 (Roth, 2004), p. 630.
8 (Hewlett, Servon et al., 2008), pp. 7 and 8, respectively.
9 Quoted in (Verghis, 2009), p. 26.
10 (Morgan & Martin, 2006), p. 121.
11 (Morgan & Martin, 2006), quotations from pp. 116, 117, and 118, respectively.
12 Quoted in (Dugan, 2008).
13 Quoted in D. Valler, Business visitors expect this on the agenda. Coventry Evening Telegraph, November 9, 2005, p. 8. Quoted in (Jeffreys, 2008), p. 166.
14 Quoted in (Lynn, 2006), para. 22.
15 http://www.stringfellows.co.uk/clubs/pages/corporate-events.php, accessed on August 27, 2009.
16 (Barnyard & Lewis, 2009).
17 (Morgan & Martin, 2006), p. 117.
18 According to the court testimony of one London financial executive, cited by (Lynn, 2006).
19 (Jeffreys, 2008), p. 155.
20 (Lynn, 2006), para. 24.
21 (Selmi, 2005), pp. 24 and 36, respectively. Selmi makes this argument in the context of a discussion of changing academic theories of sexual harassment.
22 (Selmi, 2005), p. 7.
23 (Hewlett et al., 2008), p. 7.
24 (Hinze, 2004), p. 105, referring to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission definition of a hostile environment.
25 (Hinze, 2004), pp. 109, 111, and 111, respectively.
26 (Hinze, 2004), pp. 120, 114, 115, 114–115, and 115, respectively.
27 (Kimmel, 2008), p. 227.
28 (Woodzicka & LaFrance, 2001). Sixty-eight percent of women who merely imagined themselves in this situation thought that they would refuse to answer at least one question, 16 percent said they would leave the interview, and 6 percent said they would report the interviewer to his supervisor. The percentages of women who actually responded in these ways to real sexually harassing interview questions were, respectively, 0 percent, 0 percent and 0 percent.
29 Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, November 8, 1869. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 9.
30 (Selmi, 2005), p. 25 then p. 30.
31 (Gutek & Done, 2001).
7. GENDER EQUALITY BEGINS (OR ENDS) AT HOME
1 M. Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way: Extracts from the diary of an apostate woman physician’, Scribner’s Magazine 93 (June 1933), pp. 365–369. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), pp. 325 and 326 (epigraph included).
2 (Hochschild, 1990).
3 See, for example (Bittman et al., 2003; Brines, 1994).
4 Quoted in (Belkin, 2008), para. 28.
5 (Gray, 2008), quotations from pp. 123, 123, 124, 125, 123, and 123, respectively.
6 (Gurian, 2004), pp. 219, 219, and 220, respectively.
7 (Bittman et al., 2003), p. 198. Note that sociologists are not entirely in agreement as to how this pattern is best explained.
8 The phrase ‘doing gender’ refers to a theory by sociologists Candace West and Don Zimmerman.
9 (Tichenor, 2005), pp. 197, 198, 199, 201, and 199–200, respectively.
10 (Selmi, 2008), p. 21.
11 Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way’. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 326.
12 (Hochschild, 1990) also discusses the contradictions between people’s explicit and implicit gender ideologies.
13 (Devos et al., 2007).
14 See (Greenwald et al., 2009).
15 (Rudman & Heppen, 2003).
16 (Rudman, Phelan, & Heppen, 2007).
17 (Stone, 2007), p. 64.
18 For interesting discussions of this issue, see (Jolls, 2002; Selmi, 2008).
19 Quoted in (Belkin, 2008), para. 39.
20 For example, see (Jolls, 2002) for evidence of discrimination with implications for wages, (Weichselbaumer & Winter-Ebmer, 2005) for data on the international gender wage gap, and (Kilbourne et al., 1994) for data showing that occupations pay less to the extent that they have a higher proportion of female workers or involve greater nurturing.
21 In fact, sociological studies of how gender ideology changes in response to life experience find that parenthood doesn’t inevitably bring about less egalitarian views. People who have children at a nonnormative time don’t show this shift, and parenthood brings about a shift towards more egalitarian views in unmarried parents (Davis, 2007; Vespa, 2009).
22 Ulrich, ‘Men are queer that way’. Quoted in (Morantz-Sanchez, 1985), p. 327.
23 (Brizendine, 2007), pp. 151 and 208, respectively.
24 (Brizendine, 2007), p. 207.
25 (Stone, 2007), pp. 77 and 78.
26 See (van Anders & Watson, 2006). Also (Silvers & Haidt, 2008) who found that watching a morally elevating video triggered nursing in mothers, suggesting oxytocin release.
27 See (van Anders & Watson, 2006; Wynne-Edwards, 2001; Wynne-Edwards & Reburn, 2000).
28 (Deutsch, 1999), p. 230. First quotation is Deutsch, second quotation is from her interviewee.
29 (Rosenblatt, 1967).
30 Wynne-Edwards suggests that ‘paternal and maternal behavior are homologous at a neural and an endocrine level’, and that this makes sense for reasons of parsimony (Wynne-Edwards, 2001), p. 139.
31 (Demos, 1982), p. 429. See also (Collins, 1982).
32 Parents’ Magazine. Family prayer in men of business. May 1842, p. 198. Quoted in (Demos, 1982), p. 436.
33 See, for example, discussion in (Hamilton, 2004), pp. 205–207. The Yearning for Balance report cited by Hamilton found that 40 percent of ‘downshifters’ (that is, people who shift their emphasis to leisure and relationships rather than economic success) in a survey of 800 adults were men. The Harwood Group, Yearning for Balance: Views of Americans on consumption, materialism, and the environment, prepared for the Merck Family Fund. http://www.iisd.ca/consume/harwood.html, accessed on August 27, 2009.
34 Quoted in (Montemurri, 2009), para. 3.
8. GENDER EQUALITY 2.0?
1 (Pinker, 2008), p. 255.
2 (Levy, 2004), p. 323.
3 The cartoon is by Tom Cheney, published in The New Yorker on May 3, 1993.
4 (Hamilton, 2004), p. 130. Hamilton is not referring here to gender, but to the role of marketing and a political emphasis on the primacy of the importance of economic growth on people’s preferences.
5 (Mason & Goulden, 2004).
6 (Gharibyan, 2009).
7 (Gharibyan, 2007, p.10; Gharibyan & Gunsaulus, 2006). Computer science is not male dominated in Singapor
e or Malaysia either (Galpin, 2002).
8 (Charles & Bradley, 2009).
9 (Peplau & Fingerhut, 2004).
10 (Charles & Bradley, 2009), p. 929.
11 For example (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001; Fullagar et al., 2003; Guimond, 2008; Prime et al., 2008).
12 (Steele & Ambady, 2006), pp. 434 and 435.
13 (Ridgeway & Correll, 2004), p. 520.
9. THE ‘FETAL FORK’
1 (Hess, 1990), p. 81, references removed.
2 (Brizendine, 2007), pp. 36, 36, and 37 and 38, respectively.
3 I say ‘seems’ because, so far as I can tell, Brizendine does not refer to any evidence that supports these terrifying claims. In the notes, to support the claim about ‘growing more cells in the sex and aggression centres’, Brizendine cites an irrelevant review of cortical development in the rat (M. Sur and J. L. Rubenstein, ‘Patterning and plasticity of the cerebral cortex’, Science 310, no. 5749 [2005], pp. 805–810), which makes no mention of sex differences. To support the claim that ‘[t]he fetal girl’s brain cells sprout more connections in the communication centers and areas that process emotion’ she refers the reader to Chapter 6, ‘Emotions’. However, I was unable to find any research or discussion of foetal brain development in this chapter. The absence of support for these and other similar claims is discussed by Mark Liberman. See http://158.130.17.5/~myl/languagelog/archives/003541.html and http://158.130.17.5/~myl/languagelog/archives/004694.html, both accessed on October 5, 2009.
4 As noted by Mark Liberman, http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003551.html, accessed September 16, 2009.
5 (Baron-Cohen, 2009), para. 5 and para. 22 respectively.
6 This section summarised from (Hines, 2004).
7 The mechanism and threshold of necessary testosterone, and the timing of the critical period, are different for the internal reproductive organs and the external genitalia.
8 For overview see (Morris, Jordan, & Breedlove, 2004).
9 A useful summary is provided by (Breedlove, Cooke, & Jordan, 1999).
10 In one species of bird, the African bush shrike, males have superior vocal control areas (that is, ‘larger nuclei, denser connections, more synapses, etc.’) even though the complexity of male and female songs is identical. Implication? ‘The link between song production and size of the vocal control nuclei may not be as simple as it first appeared.’ (De Vries, 2004), p. 1063.
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