by Guy Arnold
SSIM – South Sudan Independence Movement
SSU – Sudanese Socialist Union
SWANLA – South West Africa Native Labour Association
SWANU – South West African National Union
SWAPO – South West Africa People’s Organization
SWATF – South West Africa Territorial Force
SYL – Somali Youth League
TANU – Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika) African National Union
TEC – Transitional Executive Council (South Africa)
TGNU – Transitional Government of National Unity (Namibia)
TMC – Transitional Military Council (Sudan)
TNCs – Transnational Corporations
TNG – Transitional National Government (Somalia)
TNP – Transvaal National Party (South Africa)
TPLF – Tigray People’s Liberation Front
TRC – Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)
TSCTI – Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative
TTF – Timber Task Forces (Ghana)
TUCSA – Trade Union Council of South Africa
UAM – Union Africaine et Malgache
UAMCE – Union Africaine et Malgache de Co-opération Economique
UANC – United African National Congress
UAR – United Arab Republic
UCPN – Union des Chefs et des Populations du Nord (Togo)
UDE – Union Douanière Equatoriale
UDEAC – Union Douanière des Etats de l’Afrique Central
UDF – United Democratic Front (Malawi)
UDF – United Democratic Front (South Africa)
UDI – Unilateral Declaration of Independence
UDP – United Democratic Party (Gambia)
UDPM – Union Démocratique du Peuple Malien
UDPS – Union pour la démocratie et le progrès social (Congo)
UDV – Union Démocratique Voltaique
UEAC – Union des Etats de l’Afrique Central
UGCC – United Gold Coast Convention Party
UGTA – Union Générale des Travailleurs Algériens
UGTT – Union Générale Tunisienne de Travail
UMA – Union du Maghreb Arabe
Umkhonto we Sizwe – ‘Spear of the Nation’ – militant wing of the ANC (qv)
UNAMIR – United Nations Assistance Mission in Rwanda
UNAMISL – United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNAVEM – United Nations Angola Verification Mission
UNC – Union Nationale Camerounaise
UNC – United National Convention (Ghana)
UNCTAD – UN Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP – United Nations Development Programme
UNECA – United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
UNFP – Union Nationale des Forces Populaires (Morocco)
UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UN-ICC – United Nations-International Chamber of Commerce
UNIP – United National Independence Party (Zambia)
UNIR – Union Nationale pour l’Indépendence et la Révolution (Chad)
UNITA – União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola
UNOSOM-II – United Nations Operation in Somalia II
UNPARED – United Nations Programme of Action for Africa’s Economic “Recovery and Development
UNTAF – United Nations Task Force
UNTAG – United Nations Transition Assistance Group
UP – Umma Party (Sudan)
UPA – Union das Populações de Angola
UPC – Uganda People’s Congress
UPDS – Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (Congo)
UPN – Unity Party of Nigeria
UPP – United People’s Party (Nigeria)
UPRONA – Union pour le Progrès National (Burundi)
UPS – Union Progressiste Sénégalaise
USAID – US Agency for International Development
USC – United Somali Congress
USIS – US Information Services
WANS – West African National Secretariat
WCC – World Council of Churches
WFP – World Food Programme
WPE – Workers’ Party of Ethiopia
WSB – West Side Boys (Sierra Leone)
WSLF – Western Somalia Liberation Front
WTO – World Trade Organization
ZANLA – Zimbabwe National Liberation Army
ZANU – Zimbabwe African National Union
ZANU-PF – Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front
ZAPU – Zimbabwe African People’s Union
ZAPU-PF – Zimbabwe African People’s Union-Patriotic Front
ZCTU – Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions
ZIPRA – Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (military wing of ZAPU – qv)
ZUM – Zimbabwe Unity Movement
Notes
Prologue
1 Edward Mortimer, France and the Africans 1944–1960 Faber and Faber, 1969, p.29
2 Mortimer, op. cit., p.29
3 Mortimer, op. cit., p.34
4 George Bennett, ‘Settlers and Politics in Kenya’ in History of East Africa vol. II, eds. Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver, OUP, 1965, p.331
5 John Middleton, ‘Kenya: Administration and Changes in African Life’, in History of East Africa vol. II, eds. Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver, OUP, 1965, p.386
6 Middleton, op. cit., p.386
7 Waruhiu Itote ‘General China’, Mau Mau in Action TransAfrica, 1979 p.6
8 Cyril Ehrlich, ‘The Uganda Economy’ in History of East Africa vol. II, eds. Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver, OUP, 1965 p.469
9 J. E. Flint, ‘Zanzibar 1890–1950’, in History of East Africa vol. II, eds. Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver, OUP, 1965, p.667
10 William F. Gutteridge, ‘Military and police Forces in Colonial Africa’, in Colonialism in Africa 1870–1960, vol. II ‘The History and Politics of Colonialism 1914–1960’, eds. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, C.U.P. 1979, p.309
11 Gann and Duignan, op. cit. p.19 (note)
12 Gutteridge, op. cit., p.290
13 West Africa, 17/11/1945
14 Mortimer, op. cit., p.392
15 Middleton, op. cit., p.392
16 Jomo Kenyatta, Suffering Without Bitterness, East African Publishing House, Nairobi, 1968 p.47
17 George Bennett, Kenya: A Political History The Colonial Period, OUP, 1963, p.112
18 David Rooney, Kwame Nkrumah: The Political Kingdom and the Third World, I. B. Tauris, 1988, p.23
19 West Africa, 3/11/1945
20 Lord Hailey, An African Survey, OUP, 1957, p.204
21 Roger Anstey, ‘Belgian Rule in the Congo and the Aspirations of the Evolue Class’ in Gann and Duignan, op. cit., p.213
22 James Duffy, ‘Portuguese Africa, 1930 to 1960’ in Gann and Duignan, op. cit., p.175
23 Duffy, op. cit., p.181
24 Hugh Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1970 p.215
25 Basil Davidson, ‘Africa in Historical Perspective’ in Africa South of the Sahara 1980–81, Europa Publications, 1980
26 Peter Hennessy, Never Again: Britain 1945–1951, Jonathan Cape, 1992, p.432
27 Professor John Gallagher, 1974 Oxford University Ford Lectures, quoted in Hennessy, op. cit., p.216
28 Hennessy, op. cit., p.216
Introduction: Independence
1 Iain Macleod, Hansard, 15 July 1960
2 New African, February 2000
3 New African, February 2000
4 Ludo de Witte, L’assassinat de Lumumba, Paris, Karthala, 2000
5 New African, February 2000
6 Madeleine G. Kalb, The Congo Cables: The Cold War in Africa, from Eisenhower to Kennedy, New York, Macmillan 1982
7 New African, February 2000
8 See Guy Arnold, Historical Dictionary of Civil Wars in Africa, Lanham, Maryland, Scarecrow Press, 1999
9 Edward Mortimer, France and the Africans 1944–1960, Faber and Faber, 1969, p.201
10 Alistair Horne, Macmillan 1957–1986, vol. II, Macmillan, p.177
11 Mortimer, op. cit., p.204
12 Mortimer, op. cit., p.341
13 Mortimer, op. cit., p.311
14 Mortimer, op. cit., p.314
15 Mortimer, op. cit., p.333
16 Mortimer, op. cit., p.371
17 David Rooney, Kwame Nkrumah: The Political Kingdom in the Third World, I. B. Tauris, 1988 pp.131–2
18 Michael Scott, Africa Digest, vol. IV, No. 5, April 1957
19 Ghana Times January 1960 reported in Africa Digest, vol. VII, No. 4, February 1960
20 Horne, op. cit., p.177
21 Horne, op. cit., p.182
22 The Daily Service (organ of the Action Group in Nigeria), reported in Africa Digest, vol. VII, No. 5, April 1960
23 Africa Digest, vol. VII, No. 6, June 1960
24 Peter Hennessy, Never Again: Britain 1945–1951, Jonathan Cape, 1992, p.219
Part I The 1960s: Decade of Hope
Chapter One Problems of Independence
1 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, MacGibbon & Kee, 1965, p.49
2 Gwendolyn M. Carter, Independence for Africa, New York, Praeger, 1960, pp.167–9
3 For discussion of an African ‘Personality’ see Georges Balandier, Ambiguous Africa, Chatto and Windus, 1966
4 Julio Finn, Voices of Negritude, Quartet, 1988 (see preface)
5 Balandier, op. cit., pp.264–5
6 Ronald Segal, The Race War, Jonathan Cape, 1966, p.104
7 John Hatch, The History of Britain in Africa, Andre Deutsch, 1969, p.283
8 Fanon, op. cit., p.177
9 See René Dumont, False Start in Africa, Andre Deutsch, 1966, for a discussion of these problems.
10 Christopher Stevens, The Soviet Union and Black Africa, Macmillan, 1976, p.196
11 Balandier, op. cit., p.258
12 For a discussion of this problem see Margery Perham, The Colonial Reckoning (The Reith Lectures), Collins, 1961
13 See Ruth First, ‘Political and Social Problems of Development’, Africa South of the Sahara 1980–81, Europa Publications, 1980
14 First, op. cit.
15 Fanon, op. cit., p.137
16 Fanon, op. cit., p.139
17 Dumont, op. cit., p.141
18 For a detailed study of civil service problems in post-colonial Africa, see A. L. Adu, The Civil Service in New African States, George Allen and Unwin, 1965
19 Dumont, op. cit., p.88
20 Segal, op. cit., p.113
21 Eddie Agyemang, ‘Freedom of Expression in a Government Newspaper in Ghana’, Reporting Africa, editor Olav Stokke, The Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, 1971, p.50
22 Dumont, op. cit., p.277
23 Fanon, op. cit., p.135
Chapter Two The Congo Crisis
1 Guardian, 10/12/1960
2 The Times, 12/12/1960
3 Observer, 07/05/1961
4 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, MacGibbon & Kee, 1965, p.192
5 Ronald Segal, The Race War, Jonathan Cape, 1966, p.91
6 Segal, op. cit., p.93
7 Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo, p.101
8 Nzongola-Ntalaja, op. cit., p.115
9 Nzongola-Ntalaja, op. cit., pp.126–7
10 Conor Cruise O’Brien, Observer, 06/12/1964
11 William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks, Harper 7 Row, 1967, pp.218–19
12 George Thayer, The War Business, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1969, p.169
13 Guardian, 08/05/1961
14 The Times, 22/12/1961
15 Observer, 29/08/1965
16 For a detailed history of mercenaries in Africa see Guy Arnold, Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Third World, Macmillan, 1999
Chapter Three African Unity and the Formation of the OAU
1 D. K. Chisiza, Realities of African Independence, The Africa Publications Trust, 1961
2 West Africa, 26/04/1958
3 West Africa, 06/12/1958
4 West Africa, 13/12/1958
5 West Africa, 20/12/1958
6 See Colin Legum, Pan-Africanisn: A short political guide, The Pall Mall Press, 1962
7 David Rooney, Kwame Nkrumah, I. B. Tauris, 1988, p.214
8 Legum, op. cit., p.130
9 Quoted in Legum, op. cit., p.111
10 Alan Rake, 100 Great Africans, Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N. J., 1994
11 Rooney, op. cit., p.224
12 Keith Kyle, Spectator, 14/06/1963
Chapter Four The Coup d’Etat and the One-Party State
1 Ruth First, The Barrel of a Gun, Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1970, p.40
2 First, op. cit., p.31
3 J. M. Lee, African Armies and Civil Order, Chatto & Windus, 1969, p.19
4 First, op. cit., p.432
5 Lee, op. cit., p.117
6 First, op. cit., p.420
7 Guardian, 01/01/1964
8 West Africa, 29/02/1964
9 The Times, 25/02/1966
10 Guardian, 18/04/1967
11 Africa Digest, vol. XVI, No. 1, February 1969
12 Guardian, 05/01/1966
13 West Africa, 21/01/1967
14 Lee, op. cit., p.78
15 Observer, 18/12/1963
16 Economist, 28/08/1963
17 The Times, 24/12/1960
18 The Times, 22/12/1958
19 Julius Nyerere, ‘Democracy and the Party System’ in Freedom and Unity, OUP 1967, p.194
20 Nyerere, op. cit., p.203
21 Frene Ginwala, Spearhead (editorial), Dar es Salaam, February 1963
22 Tunlikki Pietila, Sanna OjalammiWamai and Liisa Laakso, ‘Elections at the Borderland: Voter Opinion in Arusha and Kilimanjaro, Tanzania’, Multi-party Elections in Africa, editors Michael Cowen and Liisa Laakso, Oxford, James Currey 2002, p.279
23 Africa Digest, vol. XII, No. 2, October 1964
Chapter Five Problems of Development
1 I. M. D. Little, Aid to Africa, Pergamon Press, 1964
2 Andrew Shonfield, The Attack on World Poverty, Chatto & Windus, 1961, p.17
3 Reginald H. Green and Ann Seidman, Unity or Poverty, Penguin Books, 1968, p.127
4 Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Bogle L’Ouverture Publications, 1972, pp.236–7
5 Jeanneny Report, Official text, Paris, 1963
6 See René Dumont, False Start in Africa, Andre Deutsch, 1966
7 Basil Davidson, Can Africa Survive?, Heinemann, 1974, p.24
8 Davidson, op. cit., p.24
9 Professor Arthur Lewis, The Legon Observer, 24/05/1968
10 Dumont, op. cit., p.70
11 Green/Seidman, op. cit., p.32
12 Davidson, op. cit., p.101
13 Paul Lewis, Financial Times, 04/04/1968
14 Green/Seidman, op. cit., p.187
15 The Economist, 16/03/1968
16 The Times, 30/10/1967
17 Dumont, op. cit., p.104
18 The Times, 02/09/1964
19 Green/Seidman, op. cit., pp.32–3
20 Dumont, op. cit., p.61
21 Andre Philip, Bulletin de L’Afrique Noire, 21/02/1962
22 Common Market correspondent, Financial Times, 21/06/1966
23 Barclays Bank Overseas Review, November 1962
24 Christopher Stevens, The Soviet Union and Black Africa, Macmillan, 1976, p.28
25 Stevens, op. cit., p.74
26 Reported in Kenya Weekly News, 10/06/1966
27 Stevens, op. cit., p.74
28 Richard Lowenthal, Model or Ally?, OUP, 1977, p.272
29 Davidson, op. cit., p.122
30 Africa Digest, vol. IX, No. 6, June 1962
31 The Economist, 01/09/1962
32 The Observer, 26/08/1962
33 Stevens, op. cit., p.86
34 Guy Hunter, The New Societies of Tropical Africa, OUP, pp.181–2
35 Green/Seidman, op. cit., p.95
36 ‘The Arusha Declaration: Socialism and Self-Reliance’, quoted in Julius Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism, OUP, pp.235–41
37 West Africa, 05/08/1970
Chapter Six North Africa
1 The Economist, 19/08/1961
2 Ronald Segal, Africa Profiles, Penguin Books, 1962, p.394
3 Peter Mansfield, The Middle East, OUP, 1973, p.233
4 Samir Amin, The Maghreb in the Modern World, Penguin Books, 1970, p.214
5 Alan Rake, 100 Great Africans, Metuchen, N. J., Scarecrow Press, 1994, p.376
6 Darsie Gillie, Guardian, 31/10/1963
7 Rake, op. cit., p.273
8 Mansfield, op. cit., pp.351–2
Chapter Seven The Nigerian Civil War
1 John Hatch, The History of Britain in Africa, Andre Deutsch, 1969, p.269
2 Walter Schwarz, Nigeria, Pall Mall Press, 1968, p.xiv
3 Schwarz, op. cit., p.xiv
4 James O’Connell, ‘The Political Class and Economic Growth’, Nigeria Journal of Economic and Social Studies, vol. 8:1 (March 1966), p.129
5 Ali A. Mazrui, Violence and Thought, Essays on Social Tensions in Africa, Longmans, 1969, p.129
6 West Africa, 03/06/1961
7 Hella Pick, The Guardian, 25/02/1962
8 Schwarz, op. cit., p.31
9 Schwarz, op. cit., p.14
10 Clyde Sanger, Guardian, 29/10/1963
11 Patrick Keatley, Guardian, 22/01/1962
12 West Africa, 14/01/1961
13 West Africa, 27/03/1965
14 Ali A. Mazrui, op. cit., p.113
15 Olusegun Obasanjo, General, My Command, Heinemann, 1980, p.6
16 J. D. F. Jones, Financial Times, 05/05/1966
17 John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972, p.57
18 Fed. Min. of Info., PR.610/1966, of 24/05/1966
19 St. Jorre, op. cit., pp.73–74
20 Obasanjo, op. cit., p.8
21 Schwarz, op. cit., p.218
22 Obasanjo, op. cit., p.155
23 Obasanjo, op. cit., p.56
24 West Africa, 28/10/1967
25 West Africa, 02/12/1967
26 West Africa, 07/12/1968
27 St. Jorre, op. cit., pp.316–18
28 See Guy Arnold, Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Third World, Macmillan, 1999, for a detailed study of mercenary activity in Africa
29 Margery Perham, ‘Nigeria’s Civil War’, Africa Contemporary Record 1968–69, editors C. Legum and J. Drysdale, Africa Research Limited, 1969, pp.1–12
Chapter Eight West and Equatorial Africa
1 Paul Fordham, The Geography of African Affairs, (4th edition), Penguin Books, 1974, pp.77–8
2 Fordham, op. cit., p.103
3 Ken Post, The New States of West Africa, Penguin Books (revised edition), 1968, pp.43–4