Ivan's War
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33 RGVA 35077/1/6, 16.
34 Ibid., 18.
35 GAOPIKO 1/1/2776, 85.
36 RGVA 9/31/292, 14–21.
37 RGVA 9/36/3818, 142, RGVA 9⁄36⁄4263, 29.
38 RGVA 9/31/292, 69.
39 Reese, p. 50.
40 RGVA 35077⁄1⁄6, 53.
41 Reese, p. 47.
42 Ibid., p. 44. See also Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Smolenskoi oblasti (GASO), 2482⁄1⁄12, 8.
43 RGVA, 35077/1/6, 403.
44 TsAMO, 308/82766/66, 25.
45 PURKKA order no 282, cited in RGVA 9/362/3818, 48.
46 RGVA 9/36/4229, 77–92.
47 Reese, p. 55, citing regulations.
48 RGVA 9/36/4229, 150.
49 These examples are from RGVA 9/36/4282, 147–9.
50 RGVA, 9/31/292, 43.
51 RGVA 9/36/3818, 292.
52 P. N. Knyshevskii (Ed.), Skrytaya pravda voiny: 1941 god. Neizvestnye dokumenty (Moscow, 1992), pp. 14–21.
53 See Zaloga and Ness, pp. 189–91; RGVA, 9/36/4262, 40–2.
54 RGVA 9/36/3818, 206.
55 RGVA 9/36/4262, 40.
56 RGVA 350077/1/6, 403.
57 RGVA 9/31/292, 91.
58 RGVA 9/36/3818, 249, 292–3.
59 Cited in Reese, p. 63.
60 Ibid., p. 124.
61 Stalin’s Generals, p. 255.
62 Knyshevskii, p. 218.
63 Roger R. Reese, ‘The Red Army and the Great Purges,’ in J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning, Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993), p. 213.
64 RGVA 9/31/292, 46–7. Monthly suicide statistics for 1939 appear in the same file.
65 Knyshevskii, p. 219.
66 Reese, Reluctant Soldiers, pp. 163–4.
67 RGVA 9/36/4282, 148 (January 1940).
68 RGVA 7/36/3818, 123–4.
69 Reese, Reluctant Soldiers, p. 93.
70 van Dyke, p. 79.
71 Werth, p. 71.
72 Interview, Kiev, April 2003.
73 Cited in von Hagen, Soviet Soldiers, p. 99.
74 L. N. Pushkarev, Po dorogam voiny (Moscow, 1995), p. 11.
75 The Red Army’s participation here is described in RGVA 9/31/292, 160–1.
76 Ibid., 209.
77 Ibid., 181–2.
78 RGASPI-M, 33/1/1406, 4.
79 M. Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941‒1944 (Houndmills, 2000), p. 9.
80 RGVA 9/31/292, 279.
81 TsAMO, 308/82766/66, 16, refers to directive of GlavPURKA of 14 January 1941.
82 Vestnik arkhivista, 2001: 3, 56–9.
83 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2772, 16 (22 April 1941).
84 TsAMO, 308/82766/66, 17.
85 RGASPI, 17/125/44, 23.
86 TsAMO, 308/82766/66, 17 (15 January 1941).
87 RGVA 9/31/292, 75.
88 For a discussion of this issue, see Garthoff, p. 231.
89 RGVA 9/31/292, 288 (15 December 1939).
90 Ibid., 250–1.
91 On primary groups, see the article by Shils and Janowitz cited above (p. 343).
92 Reese, p. 171.
93 On the lack of team spirit, see RGVA, 9/36/3821, 54.
94 RGVA 9/31/292, 245.
95 Ibid., 288 (15 December 1939).
96 RGVA 9/36/3821, 44.
97 RGVA 9/31/292, 255 (2 December 1939).
98 RGVA 9/36/3821, 2.
99 RGVA 9/31/292, 361.
100 Ibid., 351.
101 RGVA 9/36/3821, 8.
102 Krivosheev, p. 63.
103 RGVA 9/31/292, 290.
104 Ibid., 288 (15 December 1939).
105 Ibid., 253 (2 December 1939).
106 Ibid., 363.
107 Ibid., 360.
108 Ibid., 374.
109 Garthoff, p.236.
110 RGVA 9/36/4282, 47.
3 Disaster Beats Its Wings
1 Evseev’s memoir is cited in P. N. Knyshevskiiet al., Skrytaya pravda voiny: 1941 god. Neizvestnye dokumenty (Moscow, 1992), pp. 330–1.
2 John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1975), p. 92.
3 Ibid., p. 112.
4 Knyshevskii, p. 331.
5 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 104.
6 Werth, p. 150.
7 Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv literatury i iskusstva (RGALI), 1710/3/49, 8.
8 Rossiya XX vek: Dokumenty. 1941 god v 2 knigakh, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1998), p. 422.
9 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 106.
10 RGALI, 1710/3/49, 9.
11 Erickson, Stalingrad, pp. 118–9.
12 Timoshenko replaced the vain and inept Voroshilov after the Finnish debacle in May 1940.
13 Pavlov’s testimony at his interrogation on 7 July, reprinted in 1941 god, pp. 455–68.
14 Ibid., p. 456.
15 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 116.
16 1941 god, p. 459.
17 Cited in Werth, pp. 152–3.
18 Ibid., pp. 153–4.
19 Pavlov’s testimony in 1941 god, p. 459.
20 Werth, p. 157; Stalin’s Generals, p. 49.
21 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2(2), p. 58 (text of order 270, where Boldin is singled out for praise).
22 1941 god, pp. 472–3.
23 Werth, p. 181.
24 1941 god, pp. 434–5.
25 Interview with Shevelev, Kursk, July 2003.
26 Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv obshchestvenno-politicheskoi istorii kurskoi oblasti (GAOPIKO), 1/1/2636, 40–2.
27 Moskva voennaya, p. 49.
28 Ibid., p. 43.
29 Druzhba, p. 302.
30 RGASPI, 17/125/44, 70, 72.
31 Mikhail Ivanovich, interview, Moscow province, April 2001.
32 Moskva voennaya, p. 51.
33 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2636, 41.
34 RGASPI, 17/125/44, 69.
35 Moskva voennaya, p. 52.
36 Detwiler (Ed.), vol. 19, D-036, pp. 3–4.
37 The story of one small and doomed nationalist group was related to me in a series of interviews in Tbilisi, September 2002.
38 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2636, 43.
39 Moskva voennaya, p. 53.
40 RGASPI, 17/125/44, 69–71.
41 Moskva voennaya, p. 52.
42 Ibid., pp. 53–5.
43 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2636, 51–2.
44 Knyshevskii, p. 59.
45 Ibid., pp. 60–1.
46 RGASPI, 17/125/44, 71–3.
47 Moskva voennaya, p. 55.
48 They shot them all. When the Germans took the city, the bodies were exposed in the prison yards for local people to see. It was an effective propaganda move that turned an already anti-Soviet city even more strongly against Stalin.
49 RGASPI-M, 33/1/360, 10–11.
50 Druzhba, p. 21.
51 Werth, p. 165.
52 Comments reported in Moskva voennaya, p. 68.
53 Ibid., p. 69.
54 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2638, 30.
55 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2807, 9.
56 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2636, 50–1.
57 GAOPIKO, 1/1/2807, 9.
58 Werth, p. 149.
59 Ibid., pp. 166–7.
60 GASO, R1500/1/1, 2–3.
61 Ibid., 6.
62 Knyshevskii, pp. 14–16.
63 Report to Mekhlis, July 1941. Cited in Knyshevskii, p. 66.
64 Temkin, p. 38.
65 Cited in Werth, p. 148.
66 1941 god, p. 499.
67 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 162.
68 Zaloga and Ness, p. 69.
69 Knyshevskii, p. 204.
70 Detwiler (Ed.), vol. 19, C-058, pp. 18–19.
71 ‘O boevykh deistviyakh 6 armii pri vykhode is okruzheniya’, Voenno-istoricheskii arkhiv, 7 (22), 2001, p. 109.
72 M. V. Mirskii, Obyazany zhizn’yu (Moscow, 1991), p. 19.
73 Knyshevskii, p. 65.
74 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 121.
75 Knyshevskii, p. 266.
76 Ibid., pp. 264–5.
77 Velikaya otechestv
ennaya, 6, p. 61. Also barred were soldiers who had escaped encirclement ‘in small groups or singly’.
78 Krivosheev, p. 114.
79 1941 god, p. 469. The mass production of the crude missiles was ordered by secret order no. 631 of the GKO.
80 Knyshevskii, pp. 104–6.
81 Detwiler (Ed.), vol. 19, p. 123.
82 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 6, pp. 42–3 (order no. 081).
83 Ibid., p. 47 (no. 085).
84 Vstrechi s proshlym, 1988, no. 6, p. 443.
85 RGASPI, 17/125/87, 1.
86 RGASPI, 17/125/47, 47.
87 RGASPI, 17/125/47, 23.
88 Werth’s account of the battle is largely positive, describing it as the first Soviet victory of the war. For a different view, see Beevor, Stalingrad, pp. 28–9.
89 Cited in Werth, p. 172; Knyshevskii, p. 203.
90 Druzhba, p. 20.
91 Martin Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44 (Houndmills, 2000), p. 26.
92 Knyshevskii, p. 55.
93 Ibid., p. 304.
94 Velikaya otechestvennaya, vol. 2, part 2, pp. 58–60.
95 GASO, R1500/1/1, 6.
4 Black Ways of War
1 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 15: 4(1), Moscow, 1997, p. 40. The captured German document is Hoepner’s ‘Storming the Gates of Moscow: 14 October–5 December 1941’, dated December 1941.
2 Ibid., p. 41.
3 Krivosheev, p. 139; Erickson, ‘The System’, p. 225.
4 S. G. Sidorov, Trud voennoplennykh v SSSR 1939–1956 gg. (Volgograd, 2001), p. 60.
5 Ibid., p. 61.
6 Erickson, p. 233.
7 Erickson, ‘The System,’ p. 238.
8 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 4 (1), p. 41.
9 Werth, pp. 238–9.
10 V. I. Yutov and others, Ot brigady osobogo naznacheniya k ‘vympely’, 1941–1981 (Moscow, 2001), p. 45.
11 Interview with Mikhail Ivanovich, April 2001; M. M. Gorinov et al. (Eds), Moskva voennaya, 1941–1945: memuary i arkhivnye dokumenty (Moscow, 1995), p. 103.
12 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 4 (1), p. 56.
13 Overy, p. 118.
14 A. E. Gordon, ‘Moskovskoe narodnoe opolchenie 1941 goda glazami uchastnika’, Otechestvennaya istoriya, 2001: 3, pp. 158–61.
15 Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv obshchestvenno-politicheskoi istorii kurskoi oblasti (GAOPIKO), 1/1/2773, 18–21.
16 Gordon, pp. 158–63.
17 Report dated 14 January 1942, Knyshevskii, p. 227.
18 Ibid., p. 226.
19 Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, Oberkommando des Heeres, RH2-1924, p. 23.
20 Overy, pp. 116–7.
21 Knyshevskii, p. 184. Report from Volokolamsk Front, 27 October 1941.
22 N. D. Kozlov, Obshchestvennye soznanie v gody velikoi otechestvennoi voiny (St. Petersburg, 1995), p. 24.
23 Knyshevskii, p. 313.
24 Moskva voennaya, p. 167.
25 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 2 (2), pp. 108–9.
26 Moskva voennaya, pp. 167–8.
27 RGALI, 1814/4/5, 42.
28 Tsentr dokumentatsii noveishei istorii smolenskoi oblasti (TsDNISO), 8/1/212, 4.
29 Knyshevskii, pp. 187–8.
30 Omer Bartov, in his study of the Wehrmacht, also suggests that harsh discipline, a raw ideological belief and the fear of death created bonds of a kind between the men. See The Eastern Front, 1941–45: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (Houndmills, 1985), pp. 144–5.
31 Archive of the Komsomol, hereafter RGASPI-M, 33/1/360, 3–8.
32 TsDNISO, 8/2/99, 1–2.
33 E. M. Snetkova, Pis’ma very, nadezhdy, lyubvy. Pis’ma s fronta (Moscow, 1999), p. 1.
34 RGASPI-M, 33/1/276, 4.
35 Stroki, opalennye voiny. Sbornik pisem voennykh let, 1941–1945, 2 izd. (Belgorod, 1998), pp. 115–6.
36 Gordon, pp. 160–1.
37 Alexander Nevsky defeated the Teutonic knights in 1242. Dmitry Donskoi’s defeat of the Tatars followed in 1380. Minin and Pozharsky drove out the Poles in the seventeenth century and the last two generals, Suvorov and Kutuzov, led the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
38 Stalin, ‘Rech’ na parade krasnoi armii’, in O velikoi otechestvennoi voine Sovetskogo Soyuza (Moscow, 1947), pp. 37–40.
39 Moskva voennaya, pp.44–5.
40 Werth, p. xvi.
41 Kursk NKVD report, GAOPIKO, 3605/1/307, 1–3.
42 TsDNISO, 8/1/25, 7–8.
43 Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv smolenskoi oblasti (GASO), 1500/1/1, 16–18.
44 See Vasil Bykov, ‘Za Rodinu! Za Stalina!’, Rodina, 1995, no. 5, pp. 30–7.
45 On swearing, see E. S. Senyavskaya, Frontovoe pokolenie: istoriko-psikhologicheskoe issledovanie, 1941–1945 (Moscow, 1995), p. 83.
46 Memorial essay no. 2272: ‘Memoirs of Valish Khusanovich Khabibulin,’ Ed. Nina Pavlovna Bredenkova (Tyumen’ 2002).
47 TsDNISO, 1555/1/3, 3–5.
48 Knyshevskii, p. 355.
49 TsDNISO, 1555/1/3, 5.
50 Moskva voennaya, p. 167.
51 RGASPI-M, 33/1/1395, 6.
52 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 2 (2), p. 155.
53 See photo on facing page, which is a typical representation.
54 Sidorov, p. 60.
55 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 2 (2), p. 114–5.
56 Ibid., p. 155.
57 Ibid., pp. 114–5; 193–4.
58 Ibid., p. 166, 6, p. 120.
59 Werth, p. 370.
60 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 2 (2), p. 73.
61 Ibid., pp. 252–3; 166 (on thieving).
62 For an example from the battle of Moscow, see Knyshevskii, p. 184.
63 Cited in Knyshevskii, p. 164.
64 TsDNISO, 1555/1/3, 3.
65 Velikaya otechestvennaya, 6, p. 97, order no. 307 of Glav PURKKA.
66 TsAMO, 206/298/2, 15, 49–50.
67 Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, RH2-124, p. 22.
68 Werth, p. 422.
69 GASO, 1/1/1500, p. 15.
70 TsDNISO, 8/2/82, 50.
71 Werth, pp. 705–7.
72 RGASPI, 17/125/169, 5–8.
73 TsDNISO, 8/1/25, 12.
74 ‘Vystuplenie po radio’, 3 July 1941, in Stalin, O velikoi otechestvennoi voine, p. 15.
75 TsDNISO, 8/1/25, 12.
76 See John A. Armstrong (Ed.), Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison, 1964), p. 3.
77 On field post in general, see Velikaya otechestvennaya, 6, pp. 76 and 134.
78 Ponomarenko’s figures, from RGASPI 69/1/19, 129.
79 The ‘big country’ – bol’shaya zemlya – was the partisans’ term for the unoccupied part of the USSR.
80 GASO, 1500/1/1, 25–35; TsDNISO, 8/2/99, 17.
81 Armstrong, p. 170.
82 Pis’ma s fronta i na front 1941–1945 (Smolensk, 1991), pp. 77 and 94–5.
83 Stalin, O velikoi otechestvennoi voine, p. 43.
84 Bundesarchiv, RH2-1924, p. 21.
85 Overy, p. 117.
86 V. L. Bogdanov et al. (Eds), Zhivaya pamyat’: pravda o voine, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1995), pp. 392–6.
87 Rodina, 1995, no. 5, p. 68.
88 RGALI, 1814/4/5, 32.
89 Werth, pp. 388–9.
90 Information from the Adzhimuskai museum and from local people in Kerch.
91 Evseev, cited in Knyshevskii, pp. 334–7.
92 Werth, p. 398.
93 Rodina, 1991, nos. 6–7, p. 68.
94 Ibid., p. 60 (voenyurist Dolotsev).
95 Zhivaya pamyat, (diary of Vladimir Ivanov), p. 388.
5 Stone by Stone
1 RGVA, 32925/1/504, 34.
2 See Chuikov’s account in Werth, pp. 444–5.
3 Rodina, 1995, no. 5, p. 60.
4 Interview with Lev Lvovich, Moscow, April 2002; RGVA, 32925/1/504, 34.
5 I have cited one respondent for each of these explanations of wartime cowardice. In fact, almost every veteran interviewed blamed generic cen
tral Asians or Ukrainians for the army’s failures at different points in the war. Most also gave examples of ‘good’ representatives of those groups. Indeed, few could name a ‘bad’ one among the people they knew personally.
6 Special orders concerning the national minorities in the army, 17 September 1942. Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 6, pp. 173–4.
7 See Beevor, Stalingrad, pp. 84–5.
8 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 6, p. 153.
9 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2 (2), pp. 276–7. According to more recent Soviet figures, the true number was at least 90 million. See Sidorov, p. 60.
10 Cited in Vasily Chuikov, The Beginning of the Road, trans. Harold Silver (London, 1963), p. 175.
11 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2 (2), p. 278.
12 GASO, 1/1/1500, 31.
13 Cited in Roger R. Reese, The Soviet Military Experience: A History of the Soviet Army, 1917–1991 (London, 2000), p. 115.
14 All figures cited by Overy, p. 160.
15 Erickson, ‘The System’, p. 244.
16 Rodina, 1995, no. 5, p. 61.
17 Gorin’s story featured in a television documentary shown in Moscow in 2002, but he was kind enough to repeat it for me, and to answer questions, in Moscow in the same year.
18 Erickson, ‘The System’, p. 236. This figure is almost certainly too low. At least a million prisoners were released from the Gulag and sent to the front, and most of these served in penal units of some kind, though some were drafted into regular units and used for dangerous tasks like clearing mines by hand. See Chapter 6, below, pp. 174‒6.
19 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 6, pp. 176–7.
20 Ibid., p. 157.
21 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2 (2), 351.
22 See also Overy, p. 160.
23 Krivosheev, pp. 125–6; Werth, p. 408.
24 TsAMO, 1128/1/4, 61.
25 See Volkogonov’s biographical essay in Stalin’s Generals, pp. 317–21.
26 Erickson, Stalingrad, p. 349.
27 Anfilov’s biographical essay in Stalin’s Generals, p. 64.
28 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 6, p. 176.
29 Ibid., p. 161.
30 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2 (2), pp. 372–3.
31 Order no. 307 of the Defence Commissariat, ibid., pp. 326–7.
32 Chuikov, The Beginning, p. 284.
33 TsAMO, 1128/1/4, 61.
34 Velikaya Otechestvennaya, 2 (2), p. 359.
35 For examples, see ibid., pp. 281–3 and 318–20.
36 TsAMO, 206/298/4, 6. For more on the play, see also Werth, pp. 423–6.
37 Temkin, p. 137; Werth, p. 622. In fact, the T-34 had a diesel engine, which made it less prone to combustion than most previous Soviet models, although plenty of T-34s would burn in combat conditions through the war.