by Tom Stobart
Curdling. In most types of cheese, the curd is set milk with a strong cheese rennet. There are also a few in which curdling is brought about purely by natural souring, and others in which the curd is set with certain plant juices. Variations are produced by the amount of rennet used, the point in souring at which it is added, the temperature etc. When the rennet coagulates the milk, casein, fat globules and most of the micro-organisms are trapped; a little of these drains away in the whey.
Cutting the curd. When the curd is set, it must be cut or broken up to allow the whey to drain out. This is one of the most important operations in cheese-making, as the fineness of the curd particles and the amount of whey left in the cheese will determine its type. In the simplest, old-fashioned methods, the curd is simply broken up and stirred with the hand; the amount of heat which the hand can tolerate then limits the temperatures at which such cheeses can be made. I have watched shepherds in Sardinia making their sheep’s-milk cheese (pecorino sardo) by this simple method, with the pot kept warm by the wood fire and the curd stirred with the bare hand and gradually kneaded into a lump which is then scooped into the mould. However, the curd is usually cut into cubes with a knife or an arrangement of knives and, if it is for heated or ‘scalded’ curd cheese, the curd is heated further and stirred to make the granules finer and to cause them to shrink, thus ensuring that even more whey can be drained out. As the size of grain is vital, the cutting is often done with a device of wires strung on a frame (a harp).
Cheddaring is one of the essential stages in making Cheddar cheese. Here, the curd, when firm enough to be turned without breaking, is cut in slabs, drained by stacking and finally milled in a curd mill before being mixed with salt, allowed to drain once more and finally pressed into hoops.
Cooking the curd. For the harder types of cheese, the curd is usually warmed to up to about 54°C (130°F), which is rather more than can be endured by the bare hand. This shrinks the curd and hardens it making it easier to get the whey out. These cooked types of cheese, such as Emmentaler or Parmesan, are therefore harder than, say, Cheddar, just how hard will also depend on other factors as well, but in general the higher the cooking temperature, the harder the cheese. The usual limit to which the curds are ‘cooked’ is 54-55°C (130 -132°F), though higher temperatures are used in making plastic curd cheese and Scandinavian sweet cheeses.
Draining the curd. Whether the curd has been cooked or not, it has now to be drained. In the soft cheeses, where quite a lot of whey will be left, the cut curd, stirred or unstirred, is ladled directly from the vat into the forms, but there are many variations. For instance, in the very simple types of cheese made in some parts of the Carpathians, the curd is simply squeezed into lumps in the hands and eventually cured in brine. In making Pont I’Evêque, the curd is first drained slightly on straw mats, gently squeezed by the cheese-maker by rolling up the mat, and then ladled into square wooden forms (careful and even packing being part of the skill) and the forms left to drain on straw mats. The curd compacts under its own weight. Other types of cheese are drained in baskets or in tall perforated moulds.
Pressing the curd. For the harder types of cheese, pressure is applied to help the whey drain out. This may be no more than a matter of putting a brick on top, or it may involve a hydraulic press. For instance, in the making of Emmentaler, after cutting, cooking and stirring in giant steam-heated kettles, the huge mass of curd is scooped into a cloth which is drawn under it and lifted with a block and tackle into an adjustable wooden form positioned under a hydraulic press. The press squeezes it into the huge cartwheel shapes. The pressure applied is an important factor in cheese-making.
Salt in cheese is not only necessary for taste, but also has a great influence on micro-organisms; some are very sensitive to it. For instance, one of the heat-loving, milk-souring bacteria, Streptococcus thermophilus (used as starter for Emmentaler) will not grow in as little, even, as 2% salt (which, in effect, means in most cheeses except fresh curd cheese). Some types of cheese are salted by rubbing with dry salt or washing in brine. This also discourages the growth of moulds. Some cheeses, such as the Greek feta, are packed in salt in barrels, and a brine soon forms which preserves the cheese. Other additives are colours (most commonly annatto), spices (such as caraway or cloves in Leyden), pepper, wine, sage, etc.
Ripening or maturing. There are unripened cheeses which are eaten fresh, such as cottage cheese, boursin (with pepper or garlic and herbs), petit Suisse, demi-sel, fromage blanc and so on. They do not keep for more than a few days and are known as fromages a pâté fraîche in France. The softcurd types (pâtés molles) are matured for a short time and are soft and perishable, because of their high whey or moisture content.
They can be broadly divided into two types: those like Camembert, Brie and Coulommiers, in which moulds are encouraged to grow on the surface, and the others, such as Maroilles and Munster, in which surface moulds are deliberately discouraged by washing and salting. Some, like Pont I’Evêque, come in between: some mould is wanted, but not too much.
Surface moulds ripen cheeses by means of enzymes which diffuse inwards from them; hence you may get a Camembert that is soft and ripe throughout, but for a small white layer in the centre, where the enzymes have not yet reached. Cheeses ripened by moulds which grow only on the surface where they have sufficient air are small or, if large in diameter, like a Brie, are at least thin. Other cheeses are ripened internally by green moulds, among them Stilton, Gorgonzola and Roquefort. The curd for such cheeses has to be packed loosely to leave cracks for the mould to grow in; today, however, the cheeses are stabbed to let air in. Other cheeses are ripened by the action of bacteria working within and are not limited in size, although a really soft cheese is likely to be small, if only for mechanical reasons.
The hard-pressed cheeses are made by cooking or ‘scalding’ the curd, so more whey is taken out and the cheeses are harder. They include the Dutch Gouda and Edam, and the French Port Salut, Cantal and Saint Paulin; the more strongly cooked types are represented by Emmentaler, Gruyère and Parmesan. These are large cheeses, ripened only by bacteria and enzymes. Their surfaces are often washed, scraped, salted, oiled, waxed or covered in various compounds to stop moulds from growing on the surface and create a thick, tough, impervious rind. Today, hard cheeses are often wrapped in moisture-proof film so that no rind is formed.
Since ripening involves micro-organisms and enzymes, the control of temperature and humidity is of the greatest importance. Cheeses may be stacked in ripening rooms or in natural caves and cellars. Most cheeses are frequently turned and inspected, and in the case of the cheeses that come in huge cartwheels, the work is so heavy that the turning is done these days by machinery.
Although the details of each type of cheese are different, maturation is characterized in general by a reduction of the acidity by bacteria which feed on the acid. At the start, the strong acidity gives elasticity to the curd. If the curd is washed to reduce its calcium content, it can be drawn out into strings, a factor made use of in making plastic curd cheeses. Cheeses like Camembert are initially very acid, and become hard as they dry out. They are then softened by enzymes in the moulds. Immature cheese, like fresh Cheddar, will go very stringy if cooked – like a mixture of chewing gum and butter, as one author described it.
The cook needs to know about ripening cheese only to be aware of the stages of ripeness when buying it. A maturation period of a year or more, as is needed for hard Italian grana like Parmesan, explains to some extent why it is so expensive. Cheeses are best bought when ripe, and the ripening should not be attempted at home. At most, a Camembert should be kept until the next day, but it is bought almost ready; if the cheesemonger tries to foist off a leathery Camembert on the grounds that it will be ripe in a day or so, it is best not to buy it. The odds are that, because of mishandling, it will never ripen properly. In general, cheeses are best ripened in their proper environment. Thus, you can never get a perfect Gorgonzola far from the caves of nort
hern Italy, where they are matured, for, unless removed early (like fruit), they will not stand up to travel, being large and, when ripe, rather squashy.
Buying cheese. Most cheese today is sold pre-packed in plastic film. If, however, you are lucky enough to have access to a cheese merchant who still cuts pieces to order, always ask to taste a sliver before buying, and get fully-ripe cheese in manageable quantities. Since it is impossible to describe tastes with any accuracy, try to build up over a period of time a working knowledge of cheese available locally.
Keeping cheese. Ideally, cheese should not be kept, as it starts to deteriorate once cut. However, some storage is usually inevitable. One may wrap cheese in greaseproof paper or foil and put it in a cool larder (if anyone possesses such a thing these days).The cold of a refrigerator slows down the growth of ripening micro-organisms, but may encourage others that prefer low temperatures and so spoil the cheese. Never forget that a cheese is a living community of organisms; if you destroy the balance, then the cheese is likely never to recover. Only processed cheese, which is ‘dead’ and designed for a long shelf-life, will keep, but it is not noted for its character.
Cheese rinds. The rind and what grows on it has a profound effect on the cheese. The rind may be bathed in wine or beer to encourage micro-organisms, or coated with lamp black, burnt umber, gum, even (at least in the past) varnish bitumen to discourage them. Some cheeses are smoked, others wrapped in leaves or coated with grapeskins, pepper, dried thyme or plastics. The question sometimes asked is whether or not one should eat the rind. Added coatings should obviously not be eaten, and in general, even natural rinds are best removed. As one maker of Pont l’Evêque told me, ‘We spend a lot of effort making sure that the cheese is not bitter, and then some idiots go and eat the rind as if it were Camembert’. I have even known people to eat the grape pips on tôme au raisin.
Plastic curd cheeses are characteristic of southern Italy, the best known being the sausage-shaped provolone. To make these cheeses, the soured curd is heated in water to 57°C (137°F) until it becomes plastic and can be stretched and kneaded; it is then shaped and moulded while still hot.
Classification of cheeses. As there are at least a thousand named cheeses, it would be useful to be able to classify and group them for purposes of description. Unfortunately, this has so far defeated even the experts. According to the writers of Cheeses of the World (US Department of Agriculture), there are probably only eighteen distinct types of cheese, which are typified as follows: Brick, Camembert, Cheddar, Cream, Edam, Gouda, Hand, Limburger, Neufchâtel, Parmesan, Provolone, Romano, Roquefort, Sapsago, Swiss (Emmentaler), Trappist, Mysost, Ricotta.
One basic characteristic used for description is consistency: very hard (grating), hard, semi-hard, semi-soft, soft, or very soft and runny. These groups may be subdivided into those ripened by bacteria only, by moulds (external and internal) and by organisms growing on the surface and their enzymes – or by a combination – as well as the fresh cheeses which are unripened.
Very hard Ripened by bacteria: Asiago (old), Parmesan, Romano, Sapsago, Spalen.
Hard Ripened by bacteria and with no eyes: Cheddar, Provolone
Ripened by bacteria and with eyes: Emmentaler, Gruyère
Semi-hard and semi-soft Ripened by bacteria: Brick, Munster
Ripened by both bacteria and surface organisms: Limburger, Port-Salut, Trappist
Ripened by interior blue mould: Danblu, Gorgonzola, Roquefort, Stilton
Soft Ripened: Bel Paese, Brie, Camembert, Hand, Neufchatel Unripened: Cottage, Cream, Fromage Blanc, Petit Suisse, Ricotta
Very soft Many cheeses could be described as very soft or runny when fully ripe, such as Vacherin.
It is part of the problem of classification that the texture of many cheeses changes as they ripen: some are table cheeses or grating cheeses according to their age and dryness. To the consumer, the questions of whether a cheese is ripened by moulds or by bacteria are largely academic, though interesting. Of more importance are the following considerations. Do you buy by weight or must you buy the whole cheese? What does it look like when ripe? How is the genuine cheese marked and packed? Is it strong or mild? Is it for eating, cooking or grating?
Cheese in cooking. Wherever cheese is made, it figures in the local cooking. Thus, when trying traditional recipes, you must use the correct cheese if you want the dish to taste as it is meant to. When it is impossible to find the right cheese, though, trial and error with other cheeses becomes necessary. If you are aiming at authenticity, try to use cheese of the right type and age. Avoid using too young a cheese for melting, as it is likely to become stringy when heated.
Certain types of cheese have distinctive characteristics which either make them highly suitable for some dishes or give a particular flavour to a cuisine. For British cooking, Lancashire and Cheshire cheeses melt best, although others, such as Cheddar types, melt well too. Americans have discovered that blue cheeses, in addition to giving a fine flavour to a vinaigrette or a mayonnaise, melt well on the ubiquitous hamburger. In Italy, where cheese is a basic culinary flavour, the grana cheeses such as Parmesan are grated into and over innumerable dishes. The elastic mozzarella melts beautifully, while the whey cheese ricotta is found in both savoury and sweet dishes. French cooking frequently uses Gruyère and Emmentaler in savoury dishes and soft cream cheeses in sweets such as fromage à Ia crème and tourteau fromagé. In Greece, feta cheese is found not only in salads but also layered between sheets of phyllo pastry with spinach or other ingredients. Generally, curd and cream cheeses bake well; they are the basis of some Danish pastry fillings and of endless cheesecake recipes. Simple cottage cheeses are a very useful basic ingredient in cuisine minceur and for diets. For such purposes, they are often processed in a blender to make light temporary emulsions.
[Cheese – French: fromage German: Kase Italian: formaggio Spanish: queso]
CHERIMOYA. See custard apple.
CHERRY. Like plums, cherries are members of the genus Prunus. There are well over a thousand varieties, some of them almost unchanged since Roman times. Most of the important ones are derived from two species, the sour cherries (pie or Morello cherries) coming from P. cerasus, a shrub or small tree, and the sweet cherries from the gean or mazzard (P. avium), a larger tree. Both are native to Europe, though sweet cherries probably originated in a form of P. avium from Asia Minor. There are hydrids between the two species which go under the name of Duke cherries (Royale in France, where they originated). In addition, there are a number of wild cherries indigenous to both Europe and North America, none of which is cultivated. In Europe, there is the Bird cherry (P. padus), a hardy northern species with small bitter-sweet black berries which can be fermented to make a fruit brandy, and the Mahaleb or St Lucie’s cherry (P. mahaleb), with wood that is prized for making pipes and fruits that are sometimes used for liqueurs. Another European species, the Cherry laurel (P. laurocerasus) smells of the *hydrocyanic acid it contains; it is very poisonous. The Cornelian cherry or cornel (Cornus mas) of central and southern Europe (excluding the Iberian Peninsula) has edible fruit, although it is related not to the cherry but to the dogwood (C. sanguinea). In North America, both the sweet cherry and the sour cherry have escaped and gone wild. None of the indigenous American cherries is cultivated, but the Rum cherry (Prunus serotina) was used by the early New Englanders to turn raw rum into a fine cherry liqueur and also to make Cherry Bounce (by a similar technique to that used for sloe gin, with brandy instead of gin, suitably sweetened with sugar).Then there is the common chokecherry (P. virginiana) with astringent, pea-sized cherries which make good jelly, and the very similar P. melanocarpa, which is less astringent. In the US, the name of Bird cherry or Pin cherry is given to P. pennsylvanica, which is sour and not much utilized, but which can also make a good jelly.
The sweet cherries are rather particular about the soil and climate and are very prone to diseases – one reason why they are expensive. They are also highly perishable and have t
o be packed very carefully and refrigerated. Old cherries can usually be recognized by their stalks, which are dark, not crisp and green like those of freshly-picked cherries. There are some 600 varieties in cultivation. At one time, they were classified into the bigarreaux with firm dryish flesh, and the guignes or geans with soft and juicy flesh – a distinction that no longer works because of the many intermediate forms. Their colour varies from dark red to almost white or yellow, the meat from white to dark red, and the hearts white and black. Sweet cherry varieties are usually sweet, but some can be bitter, veering towards the wild gean. The great majority of varieties are intended for eating as dessert and are not of much interest when cooked.
The Sour or Morello cherry has some 300 cultivated varieties and is the one for cooking. The Morello itself is dark, almost black, but there are red varieties called amarelles. This is the species for cherry pie, liqueurs and cherry brandy. Few varieties are good to eat from the hand. However, the hybrid Duke cherries, which may be black or red include varieties both for eating and for cooking. Some 65 kinds are grown.
Special uses of cherries are in making fruit brandies and liqueurs. Kirsch, which comes from the area including Alsace, the Black Forest and north-east Switzerland, is a dry, white spirit with a very characteristic flavour, but tasting nothing of cherries. In cooking, it is used with fruit (e.g. with pineapple), in some cakes and in a cheese fondue, which it also accompanies in the glass. It is a totally different drink to maraschino, which is sweet and again often used as a flavouring with fruits and sweets. Maraschino is said to have originated in Dalmatia, but it now comes equally from Italy on the other side of the Adriatic. Apart from being made from a different variety of cherry, the stones are crushed for maraschino (but not for kirsch), and honey is added to make the fermentable mash. The taste of maraschino contains a dash of bitter almond from the stones and is quite unlike that of kirsch. It is also sweet. Cherry brandy, of which the finest is probably Grants, an old English make, has a strong taste of cherries and is made by infusion, not by fermenting and distilling the cherries. Its use in cooking would be original rather than classical. Glacé cherries (see candied fruit), which appear much in cakes and in cake decoration, are often faked. The cherries are stoned, hardened with chemicals, and most often dyed (sometimes green) with synthetic dyes. Occasionally they are not even made out of cherries.