by Tom Stobart
[Soya – French: soja German: Sojabohne Italian: soia Spanish: soja]
SOY SAUCE or shoyu. This condiment, with its slightly sweet, salty and meaty taste, is an ancient and important ingredient in the cooking of China and Japan, but it has also been popular in Britain for over 300 years and is said to be one of the ingredients of Worcestershire sauce. There were even silver soy labels to hang on bottles long before the bean itself had registered as more than a curiosity in the West. Since soy sauce is used as much (and probably more) in China and Japan as we use vinegar, its making is a huge commercial undertaking today, but the basis of the sauce – although there are many ways of making it and many different types of it- is best understood by reference to an old description for the Japanese version.
Soya beans are first boiled until tender, then they are pounded in a mortar with an equal weight of coarsely-ground barley or roasted and cracked wheat. The mixture is then covered and left in a warm place to ferment. When the mass is sufficiently fermented, a weight of salt equal to the original weight of beans is added and well mixed in. It is all covered again and left to do its worst for up to three years, during which time it is well stirred or beaten every day At the end of this time, the brown juice is pressed out through cloth, put into a tub and left to settle. When it is clear, the sauce is racked off and is ready for use.
There was a time when soy sauce was difficult to get, but now it is easy to buy the dark, light and other varieties that are necessary in Chinese, Japanese and South East Asian recipes. The very heavy Indonesian ketjap (ketjap manis or ketjap benteng), which is a type of soy sauce, can be made, if it is not available, from any dark soy sauce by adding half its volume of molasses and sweetening with brown sugar (about 3 parts to every 8 of molasses) -this solution is suggested by Rosemary Brissenden in her excellent South East Asian Food (Penguin). Friends from Java, unable to get ketjap in Europe (it is available in Holland), experimented and found a superior French stock cube called Poule au pot. They claimed that this, mixed with brown sugar, gave results at least as good as the real thing. Another ketjap substitute is sate sauce, which is made with *peanuts.
[Soy sauce – French: sauce piquante (de soja) German: Sasse von Soja Italian: salsa di soia]
SPAGHETTI is the most popular of all forms of *pasta. It can be bought in an assortment of grades of different diameters and lengths. It should not be broken into short lengths, as this makes it difficult for the eater to twist it around the fork. Many people eat spaghetti with a fork and spoon, using the spoon as a hollow in which to twist the fork, but purists eat with a fork alone, twisting the forkful against the plate. The latter is more refined, and demonstrates your expertise, but is slower.
[Spaghetti – French: spaghetti German: Spaghetti Italian: spaghetti Spanish: espaguetis]
SPATCHCOCK, according to The Concise Oxford Dictionary, is a fowl killed and cooked in a hurry, i.e. with dispatch. In cooking, a spatchcocked chicken has been split along the middle of the breast bone, opened and flattened out for grilling.
SPECIFIC HEAT. It takes more heat, and therefore longer, to heat up some substances than others, and these also hold more heat than others. They therefore cool down more slowly. Specific heat is the scientific measurement of this: it compares the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a substance one degree with that necessary to raise the same mass of water by one degree. Copper has a very low specific heat; a copper pan heats and cools quickly. As it is also a good conductor, it responds rapidly to the cook’s adjustment of the flame and is therefore ideal for pans. Earthenware has a very high specific heat; it heats slowly, but retains its heat and cools slowly. Its temperature cannot be made to fluctuate quickly; it is ideal for containers for hot food on the table, which copper is not Other types of kitchen ware fall somewhere in between.
SPECK. See bacon.
SPICE. The word comes from the same root as species and meant a kind of merchandise. It originally applied to aromatics shipped in from the Orient and, therefore, excluded herbs (and their seeds) grown in Europe. Today, it is more conveniently used to include all dried aromatic seeds as well as the original oriental spices, and it can also cover dried chillies and allspice from America.
[Spice – French: épice German: Gewürz Italian: spezie Spanish: especial]
SPINACH. The common spinach (Spinacea oleracea) is thought to be of Persian origin; it was not known to the Romans, but was probably introduced to Europe by the Arabs and was being grown in Britain by the middle of the 16th century. Like most unusual foods at that time, it was regarded as medicinal – it is mildly laxative. Spinach might also seem to be a valuable source of minerals, as it contains a lot of iron and more calcium than any other common vegetable. However, its oxalic acid content is high and combines with the calcium and iron to form insoluble oxalates, making the minerals effectively unavailable. So spinach is valuable mainly because it is delicious, both cooked and, when young and tender, raw in salads. It is best cooked by the conservation method in the moisture it retains from washing. Spinach can sometimes be awkwardly gritty. It should ideally be soaked in cold water for an hour or so to loosen the grit, and then rinsed in several changes of water. Always take the spinach out of the water (rather than pour the water off it) so that the dirt is left behind. The process is speeded up and initial soaking rendered unnecessary if you use very hot water for the rinsing.
Good King Henry (Chenopodium bonus-henricus), also known as all-good or mercury, is called bon Henri in France and is a perennial relative of spinach. Its flavour is good, but it needs to have the water changed during cooking. The tender young flower buds are the best part to eat. Nowadays it is an unusual vegetable.
New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia expansa) belongs to another family (Aizoaceae, which also includes the garden Mesembryanthemum). It is frost tender but thrives in dry regions and so it is the spinach grown in the warm, drier countries. The plant, which has characteristic fleshy, triangular leaves, was first introduced to Europe by Sir Joseph Banks in 1770 and was grown in Kew Gardens in 1772. As it is inclined to be bitter, the water may be changed during cooking. It is best eaten young.
Orache or Mountain spinach (Atriplex hortensis) is a member of the same family as spinach and is called bonne-dame in France. It is an annual which grows up to about 2m (6½ ft) high. It has large, arrow-shaped leaves, often with toothed or crinkly edges, and is a good spinach substitute. Varieties with red or yellow leaves are sometimes grown for ornamental rather than culinary reasons, but are no less edible than green varieties.
Spinach beet or Swiss chard is a form of *beet that is grown for its leaves and its thickened leaf stalks. Sea spinach is the wild form of the same species.
Among other leaf vegetables, young stinging *nettle tops make an excellent ‘spinach’, with a very good flavour but a slightly dry texture. They are useful to mix with other foods and in stuffings. The other members of the goosefoot genus, even Stinking goosefoot (Chenopodium olidum), which has an unpleasant smell, that is said to be like stale salt fish and is caused by a substance called trimethylamine, is perfectly good to eat when boiled. Another family with green leaves that are eaten like spinach is the *mallow family, various species of which are quite good. Dead-nettles, which are not nettles but labiates related to sage, also have leaves which can be boiled, notably those of the White dead-nettle (Lamium album),which is also good in soups and stuffings. Then there is the amaranth (Amaranthus), of which there are some fifty species, mainly from warm climates; several are used as greens in countries from Italy to lndia. These are mostly annuals. *Fenugreek (methi) is much used as a green in Indian cooking, but it can be excruciatingly bitter. Indian spinach is also called Malabar nightshade. There are two species: Basella alba, from India, and B. rubra, from China. They are sometimes grown in France and can be treated just like spinach.
[Spinach – French: épinard German: Spinat Italian: spinaclo Spanish: espinaca]
SPINY LOBSTER. See langouste.
&nb
sp; SPORES of moulds and other fungi are analogous to seeds of higher plants -they are a means by which the plants multiply and spread. Spores form the powdery cloud given out when moulds are disturbed and the smoky-looking dust that comes out of ripe puffballs. Mould spores are a nuisance to the cook, because they are usually in the air and will settle on the surface of jam, indeed on any food, that is left uncovered even for a few moments. Mould spores are killed by a short boiling.
The spores of bacteria are very different. They are formed by relatively few rod-shaped species (about 150) and their purpose is not to multiply the numbers but to enable the organism to survive conditions which would kill it in its normal, actively proliferating state. Bacterial spores cause problems, as they survive a long time (up to ten years on occasion) and are exceedingly hard to kill.
Spores, however, can be regarded as only potentially troublesome, because they will not cause food spoilage or poisoning so long as they do not germinate. To germinate, the food, temperature and *pH must be right as well as the amount of air (or lack of it) and other critical conditions. Making sure that these conditions do not occur in food is one of the crucial factors in *preservation.
[Spore – French: spore German: Spore Italian: spora Spanish: espora]
SPRAT (Sprattus sprattus) is a small fish, about 15 cm (6 in) long, found around the coasts of Europe from the Black Sea to Norway. In Britain, it is in season from November to March, in the Adriatic in spring and autumn. It is an oily fish, closely related to the sardine and the herring; it can be distinguished from both by its characteristically serrated belly (it has a row of spiny scales running along it). Also, the front of its ventral fin lies directly below the front, rather than the middle, of the dorsal fin. Fresh sprats are best grilled, as they are very oily, and served sprinkled with lemon juice. They are also salted, smoked and potted. Small ones are canned in oil or tomato sauce under their Norwegian name, brisling, but are less good than sardines.
Salting Sprats
The sprats should be firm, silvery and completely fresh. After cleaning and decapitating them, put them into strong, cold brine for an hour. Then drain them well, dry them and pack them in layers in a salting jar. Each layer should be well sprinkled with a salting mixture in the proportion of 450 g (1 lb) salt to 25 g (1 oz) saltpetre and 1 tablespoon sugar. When the jar is almost full, give a final sprinkle of the salting mixture and press down the mass as for *anchovies. They will form a brine, and the sprats must be kept totally immersed in it; otherwise, they will go rancid. They will be ready in 3-4 months. Prepare them by pouring a kettle of boiling water over them in a basin, skinning them, and serving them hot. Dried and smoked sprats are best skinned and eaten raw.
[Sprat – French: esprot, sprat German: Sprotte Italian: spratto Spanish: sardineta]
SPROUTED SEEDS. When seeds sprout, many enzymes concerned with mobilizing the food reserves become active (an important stage in the production of*malt).At the same time, vitamins, particularly vitamin C, which were not present in significant amounts in the dormant seed are produced. Sprouted beans would have protected sailors from scurvy had the reason for the disease been known and not ascribed to ‘salt junk’, the seeds enjoy increasing popularity, particularly among health food enthusiasts, as they are quickly and easily grown at home.
The most widely known sprouted seeds are bean sprouts, which have been used in China for some 3000 years. The most usually and easily sprouted bean is the *mung bean. After sprouting, which takes 3-4 days or until the sprouts are 5 cm (2 in) long, the taste is mild. Mung bean sprouts can be eaten steamed or raw as a salad. However, bean or pea sprouts which are to be eaten in any quantity should be cooked (though they need only be simmered or steamed for 3 minutes). Raw legume sprouts and seeds contain a substance that inhibits trypsin, one of the enzymes with which we digest protein. The trypsin inhibitor is quickly destroyed by heat.
Mustard and cress may be sprouted in soil and are commercially grown in peat. Other seeds may be grown on flannel, tied in a cloth or put in a commercial sprouter, but a fairly foolproof and very popular way is the jam jar method. As beans and seeds increase in volume up to ten times the original size as they sprout, use a jar large enough to allow for this expansion. Put the seeds into a clean jar. Cover the opening with a piece of loosely-woven cloth, such as muslin, or, better still, nylon net, and fasten the cloth securely around the jar neck with string or a strong rubber band. Fill the jar with tepid water, shake the water around, then let it drain out through the cloth, and lay the jar on its side. Repeat this two to four times a day, or often enough to keep the seeds moist. If they are too wet, the seeds will rot; if they are too dry, they will die. Remove any seeds that do not sprout when the others have, and continue wetting and draining the sprouts until they are ready to eat. Nylon net should be rinsed between uses; muslin needs to be sterilized. Sprouts can be kept for a month in a sealed, partly inflated plastic bag in the vegetable tray of the refrigerator.
Buy untreated seeds that are specifically for sprouting, rather than seeds intended for planting, which may have been treated with retardants, fungicides or insecticides. Some instructions suggest soaking the seeds for several hours before putting them into the jar.
Mung beans should be put in plenty of water and soaked for 12-24 hours, until they just start to burst their skins. Drain off the water and follow the instructions above for the jam jar method. When the sprouts are ready, they will taste of freshly-shelled them around gently to loosen the husks. With a bit of jugglery, the husks can be tipped away, leaving unbroken, mostly husk-free, shoots. Remove any lingering husks by hand if you object to them. If the beans go mouldy before they sprout, try next time using boiled and cooled water, as the water could be the source of the mould spores.
Soya beans are the most nourishing of all but not very easy to sprout. They need to be soaked for 8-1 0 hours and then put into the sprouting container and kept in the dark. The best temperature for sprouting soya beans is 20-25°C (68-77°F), and they should be dunked in tepid water several times a day, as they will otherwise go mouldy It is best to tip the beans out on a tray, very gently, every day and look for any that seem to be going bad or refusing to sprout, as bad beans can give a rank flavour to the entire batch. In 3-4 days, the sprouts will be up to 5 cm (2 in) long and ready to eat. Rinse them well in cold water and steam them quickly in very little water. Their raw taste is more ‘beany’ than that of mung sprouts.
Lentils are delicious sprouted and are ready when the sprout is about 2 cm (1 in) long. Their flavour is sweet and delicate.
Peas. Whole dried peas produce sprouts with a fresh pea flavour and are ready when the sprout is about 5 cm (2 in) long.
Wheat sprouts taste of newly-picked maize, and are best at about 1 cm (½ in) long, while they are tender and before they become thready
Alfalfa gives very fine shoots of about 2 cm (I1 in) in 3-4 days, with a delicate, pea-like flavour. It is easy to sprout and keeps green if grown in the light.
Most sprouts are eaten at an early stage of development, but it is also common to grow seeds on to the cotyledon stage, when they are a stalk with the two first false leaves – as in mustard and cress. Other commonly sprouted seeds include adzuki beans, fenugreek, and chick peas.
SPRUCE is a coniferous tree of the genus Picea. Essence of spruce is used to flavour spruce beer. It is made by boiling the green tips of Black spruce (B. mariana) in water, and then concentrating the liquor, without the spruce tops, by boiling it down. Other species of spruce are also used. For instance, the Norway spruce (P. abies) was traditionally used in northern Europe to make ‘black beer’, the most famous variety of which came from Danzig. The antiscorbutic beer of the Tsarist Russian army was made of spruce tops, horseradish and beer flavoured with ginger and calamus. After fermentation, a little cream of tartar was added for acidity, plus tincture of mustard and strong spirit for a kick, as if it did not have enough already. In the more prosaic modern world, spruce oil – also called hemlock o
il – is used as a flavouring in root beer, ice cream and chewing gum. The hemlock from which it is extracted is an American conifer of the genus Tsuga and not the poisonous umbel lifer (as taken by Socrates) to which the name is given in Britain. As a flavouring, it is more popular in North America than in Europe.
[Spruce – French: sapin German: Fichte Italian: abete rosso Spanish: pinabete]
SPRUE. Thin, green spears of *asparagus.
SQUAB. See pigeon.
SQUASH. See marrow.
SQUID are the most numerous of the *cephalopods and the most important as a food, particularly in Japan. There are about 350 different species, ranging from tiny creatures a few centimetres long to giant squids which reach over 18m (60ft) in length and are among the most formidable marine predators. Octopuses are bulbous, and cuttlefish are shield shaped, but squids are more like torpedoes, with a fin on either side. They have eight arms and two tentacles, like cuttlefish; the tentacles are normally kept retracted, ready to be shot out to grab the prey. The common inshore species of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean are members of the genus Loligo, but various oceanic species can also be eaten.
Freshly caught squids are amongst the most beautiful of marine animals, firm and with iridescent colours, looking as if they were embedded in crystal glass. Within minutes of being landed, they assume the unappetizing, flabby appearance they have on the market slab. Squid is available frozen, dried (a staple food in China) or canned. Because of pollution and overfishing in the Mediterranean, the use of frozen squid has greatly increased in Europe over the last two decades; fortunately, they keep their flavour and are even tenderized by freezing.
Squid are fished commercially at night with lights; the hope is to attract a shoal to the surface. In Majorca, they are fished by ‘jigging’, which demands some skill and is one of my favourite sports. A lure, which loosely resembles a small squid, is made from a spindle-shaped lead weight, bound with white and coloured cotton string. It has a crown of fine, unbarbed hooks at its base. To fish, the lure is lowered until it touches bottom and is then raised about a metre, after which the fisherman has to make it imitate the movements of a small squid jetting upwards in an attempt to reach the surface. That is, the lure is jerked upwards and then allowed to sink back slowly almost to the point it started from before being jerked up again. A sudden heavy drag on the line indicates that the bait has been seized by a squid, which must then be pulled in steadily, in a continuous movement, right into the boat. The hooks are unbarbed, and if the pull is slackened (as it is in the boat) the squid drops off- it is rather easy to lose the catch, especially if there is any hesitation when the creature breaks surface. Jigging is best done in the late afternoon and evening. When it gets dark, the jigger must abandon his sport, unless he has lights, and go home for a well-earned drink.