by Tom Stobart
Turtle soup for the Lord Mayor’s banquet in London is a massive operation. Only female (cow) turtles are used. About 200 kg (440 lb) of veal bones are boiled for 2 days and nights to make some 450 It (800 pt) of stock. This is strained and seasoned with thyme, marjoram, basil and parsley, 9 It (16 pt) of sherry and 4½ lt (8 pt) of sweet white wine. In this, 3 turtles of 70-80 kg (170 lb) total after cleaning are boiled day and night for another 2 days (or more) until the lower shells have been reduced to a yellowish gelatinous consistency and can be cut in cubes, while at least part of the upper shell has gone soft and green. After standing a week to settle, the soup is cleared with egg white and reduced to 225 It (400 pt) which, when cold, sets to a stiff clear jelly. The soup is readied for the banquet by being boiled up with more sherry, and some diced, gelatinous meat is added. It is served with Birches Punch (a secret mixture which is mostly brandy and Jamaica rum).
Since an outcry by conservationists several years ago against the excessive killing of turtles for food, efforts have been made to breed turtles specially to fill the demands of the kitchen. Such projects are still very much in the developmental stage; while some turtle farms are having success, the supply of farmed turtles has not yet begun to fill the manufacturers’ needs.
[Terrapin – French: terrapène German: Desenschildkröte Italian: tarataruga aquatic Spanish: tortuga de agua dolce]
[Turtle – French: tortue de mer German: Meerschildkröte Italian: tartaruga, testugine di mare Spanish: tortuga (de mar)
TUSCARORA RICE. See wild rice.
TVP or textured vegetable protein is a high protein foodstuff manufactured from plant protein (often from *soya beans, but in Britain also from field beans) which, when processed resembles meat in texture and is intended as a meat substitute. Originally, it was aimed at the vegetarian market, but in recent years it has found its way into an assortment of processed foods.
Three basic methods produce different textures of TVP. The simplest is merely a matter of flavouring and colouring the concentrated protein, which is marketed and used in the form of granules. When they are reconstituted, these look like ground meat. The second method uses mainly soy proteins, which are dissolved in alkali to form a gel and then coagulated in acid. The protein is then extruded like synthetic fibres and emerges in a variety of textures, from tough to tender. The result can be used in stews and casseroles. The most expensive method involves spinning high-protein soy preparations into fibres. These are stretched on reels, and excess salt and acids are washed away. The fibres, blended with flavours, colours, extra nutrients and binders, are heat-processed and formed into steaks or cubes. A proportion of meat may be added for flavour and colour, particularly in canned TVP ‘meat’ products; dried TVP products are also likely to be flavoured.
u
UDDER has somewhat fatty white meat, which is not generally valued. It can be cooked in a number of ways – braised, stewed and served with onion sauce, or lightly salted, boiled and served cold with vinaigrette sauce. Udder is rarely seen in butchers’ shops or even in European markets, but seems to have been popular enough in the past. André Simon’s Guide to Good Food and Wine quotes two recipes from La Varenne (1654), and from Pepys:’ Mr Creed and I to the “Leg” in King Street, to dinner, where he and I and my Wife had a good udder to dinner’ (11th October 1660). It is (or was) much used in Italian cooking in the contents of stuffed pasta such as ravioli.
[Udder – French: tétine, mamelle German: Euter Italian: poppa, mammella Spanish: ubre]
UDON. See noodles.
UGLI. See orange.
UHT MILK. UHT stands for ultra high temperature. A recent method of sterilizing milk by a treatment midway between *pasteurization (which does not produce sterility) and conventional sterilization by autoclave. UHT treatment kills all organisms without greatly altering the taste, but it does not inactivate all the enzymes the micro-organisms have produced. Thus, although UHT milk will keep without souring for up to six months even at ordinary room temperature (providing it has been bottled or packaged in perfectly aseptic conditions), it will eventually gel because of the enzymes.
UHT milk is useful in countries with an inadequate dairy industry – such as those in the Middle East – or where there is an overwhelming tourist influx at certain seasons. It is more expensive than pasteurized milk and so, for ordinary purposes, would not replace it. However, it is increasingly taking over as the only milk to be had in small shops and supermarkets, which can thus avoid the problems of dealing with fresh, perishable milk. A bottle of UHT is a useful reserve to keep at home as a stand-by, and it does not even have to occupy space in the refrigerator until it is opened.
ULLUCO. See yam (ulluco).
UMBELLIFER. Plant belonging to the family Umbelliferae, which has small white, yellow or pink flowers usually arranged in large, flat-topped bunches called umbels. Among the 2700 species mainly from temperate areas of the northern hemisphere are quite a number of culinary importance either as vegetables or as flavourings. *Carrot, *parsnip, celeriac (see celery) and *Hamburg parsley are all umbellifertap-roots. The family is second only to the labiates for its herbs: *alexanders, *chervil, and *parsley are used for their leaves, while the seeds of other species are important as flavourings – *ajowan, *anise, *caraway and *cumin. Some are valued for both leaves and seeds: *coriander, *dill and *lovage; so are *celery and *fennel, which are best known for varieties with leaf stalks that are used as vegetables.*Asafoetida is solidified from the juice of an umbellifer. Another umbelliferous herb, *angelica, appears in the kitchen mainly as candied stems.
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VACUUM. Space without anything in it, not even air, is a vacuum. However, we talk loosely of a vacuum when we mean a partial vacuum, with most of the air removed from a container. Cooks come across vacuum flasks, which have double walls; the air between has been pumped out so that heat cannot pass either way between the two walls by ordinary conduction or convection (air currents). Radiant heat is stopped by silvering the glass so that the heat rays are reflected back from where they came, and the flask thus insulates its contents against changes in temperature.
Reduced pressure lowers the temperature at which liquids boil, as it does at a high *altitude. In a partial vacuum, water will boil even at room temperature (and astronauts’ blood would boil in space if they were not in pressure suits).This is made use of commercially in drying foodstuffs that are easily spoiled by heat. You can think of it as reduction boiling at low temperatures. Even ice will evaporate straight into water vapour at reduced pressure, and freezing in a partial vacuum is the modern technique of freeze-drying.
[Vacuum – French: vide German: Jeerer Raum, Vakuum Italian: vuoto Spanish: vacio]
VAN DER HUM. See liqueurs and cordials.
VANILLA. Real vanilla comes from the pod of a climbing orchid (Vanilla planifolia), which is native to tropical American forests. Before the Spanish arrived in America, it was already being used by the Aztecs as a flavouring for chocolate. The pods are picked unripe -they are yellow, with no vanilla taste. Flavour develops through the activity of enzymes when the pods are packed tight and allowed to sweat in boxes. They go black and acquire a white frosting of strongly aromatic vanillin crystals, which are what to look for when buying (although they can be faked).
Good vanilla pods are expensive but last a long time. Pods kept in a jar of sugar will impregnate the sugar with their flavour. For stronger vanilla flavour, the pod can be heated in the liquid to be flavoured, then rinsed and dried so that it can be used again.
The best vanilla essence is made by extracting the flavour from real vanilla pods with alcohol, but a vanilla flavour may also come from synthetic vanillin made from eugenol, which occurs naturally in clove oil. Being much cheaper, vanillin is much used as a flavouring in butter, margarine, ice cream, chocolate, drinks and liqueurs. In large doses, it is poisonous but it is such a powerfully aromatic substance that only a minute amount is necessary for effect. As usual with virtually pure synthetic flavo
urs, it lacks the complementary aromas of natural vanilla and is crude by comparison.
Vanilla needs to be used with great discretion, but is then a most useful flavour both in a dominant role and below the level of recognition. The violent vanilla flavour of many commercial products can be duplicated in the kitchen by anyone with a heavy hand.
[Vanilla – French: vanille German: Vanille Italian: vaniglia Spanish: vainilla]
VEAL. See beef
VEGETABLE GELATIN. See agar-agar.
VEGETABLE OYSTER. See salsify.
VEGETABLE PEAR. See chayote.
VEGETABLE SPAGHETTI. See marrow (Cucurbita pepo).
VELVET APPLE or mabolo. A close relative of the *persimmon.
VENISON is the meat of deer. In Europe, the smallest species, the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) is thought to make the finest venison, followed by the Fallow deer (Dama dama), the species which is partly domesticated in deer parks. The flesh of the Red deer (Cervus elaphus), which is hunted in the wilder parts of Scotland, is less choice. However, attempts are being made in Scotland to farm Red deer for venison on a commercial scale. The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is domesticated and kept in large herds in Arctic Scandinavia (and experimentally in Scotland); it is considered inferior to the other European deer for eating, although smoked reindeer tongue is a delicacy.
Very young deer are considered to lack taste, and older animals must be well hung and marinated to make the meat flavourful and tender. Dozens of marinades are used, of which the following is typical, and gives the meat a slightly sour taste. A haunch of venison should remain in it for 4-5 days, depending on the weather. As it is inclined to be dry, venison is best when larded with strips of fat
Marinade for Venison
Chop 10 carrots and 12 onions. Cook them gently until they are soft but not brown in 50 g (2 oz) butter, with 3 cloves, 2 allspice berries, 10 bay leaves, a large pinch of thyme, 10 juniper berries, salt and peppercorns. Then add ½ It (1 pt) each of wine vinegar and stock Boil for 2 minutes, then cool and strain the marinade over the haunch. Turn the haunch in the marinade from time to time. The mixture can also be used for *boar.
[Venison – French: venaison German: Wildbret Italian: selvaggina, came di cervo o capriolo cacciaggione Spanish: came de venado]
VERBENA or lemon-scented verbena (Verbena tryphilla) has a place in many gardens. It is a native of South America and requires a warmer corner or sunny window. The flavour is rather rankly lemon, such as the Spanish hierbas, which are often home made and digestive. It is also a passable substitute for *lemon grass in South East Asian dishes. Although it is inclined to be reminiscent of old-fashioned soaps, it can be used with caution in sweet dishes, fruit salads and cups to give a lemon-peel touch, but the peel of a fresh lemon is usually nicer.
[Verbena – French: verveine German: Verbena, Zitronenstrauch Italian: verbena Spanish: verbena]
VERDELHO. See madeira.
VERJUICE, from the French vert (green) jus (juice), is the sour juice of unripe fruit and was more used in the past as a souring agent than it is today. In France, it was the juice of unripe grapes and, in Britain, the juice of unripe apples or crab apples fermented for a day or so to remove any small amounts of sugar. After skimming and salting, the verjuice would keep well. It was sometimes concentrated by boiling. The main use for verjuice today is in prepared mustards. In recipes, the usual modern substitute is lemon juice. However, with a modern centrifugal juice extractor, the way is wide open for experiment
[Verjuice – French: verjus German: Obst Traubensaft (bes. von unreifen Früchten) Italian: agresto Spanish: argraz, agrazada]
VERMICELLI. See pasta.
VERMOUTH is named after the German for wormwood (Wernut).Wine has been aromatized with herbs and spices since ancient times, and such brews became particularly popular in northern Italy during the Middle Ages, where home-made versions were used as aperitifs. In 1786, a Turin cellar owner called A. B. Carpano started making vermouth on a large scale and thus founded not only the house of Carpano but also began a business which has been centred in Turin ever since. Vermouth is essentially a mixture of wines from various parts of Italy, blended with infusions of many herbs, flowers, barks and spices, and slightly fortified with alcohol to bring it up to a strength of 16-18°. It may be sweet or dry, white or coloured brownish-red with added caramel.
Vermouth is now made all over the world in the wine-producing countries. Recipes for vermouths are the manufacturers’ secrets and are occasionally changed to suit changes in taste. Vermouths were originally intended to be taken neat before a meal (and can be drunk with the first course), but today huge quantities go into cocktails. Indeed, it was cocktails such as Martinis that made vermouths internationally famous. Because vermouths are fortified, they keep fairly well once opened, particularly the heavy, sweet ones; the lighter. white vermouths begin to deteriorate after 3 weeks, even when the bottle is closed, though they go off less rapidly in the refrigerator, which for other reasons is the best place to keep the bottle.
Flavouring ingredients known to go into vermouths include angelica root, anise, calamus, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, camomile, bitter orange peel, peppermint, orris, quassia, quinine, gentian, nutmeg and, of course, wormwood. With so much variation, the instruction to use vermouth in a sauce for fish, for instance, is not very meaningful, but specific vermouths are used as flavourings in sauces and can be excellent.
[Vermouth – French: vermouth, vermout German: Wermut Italian: vermut Spanish: vermut]
VESIGA or viziga. See sturgeon.
VETIVER. See khas-khas.
VE-TSIN. See monosodium glutamate.
VICHY. See water (mineral water).
VINEGAR was originally sour wine (vin aigre),as opposed to alegar (sour ale), but today only the one word is used. Any alcoholic liquid which does not contain more than about 18% alcohol will sour if exposed to the air. Souring is caused by bacteria that attack alcohol and oxidize it to acetic acid. As they require oxygen, the bacteria grow on the surface and stick together to form a skin, usually known as vinegar plant or mother of vinegar. It may be used as a starter.
Since vinegar comes from natural processes, it has been known for as long as wine or ale. In fact, vinegar is one of the oldest ingredients in cooking and was used in Europe for thousands of years before lemon juice was even heard of. Vinegars normally contain 4-6% of *acetic acid, but the strength can be increased by distillation, and ‘essence of vinegar’ can be up to about 14%. Vinegar is commonly made by souring wine, ale (malt vinegar) or cider (cider vinegar), but vinegars are produced locally from perry, mead, rice wine, and from fruit wines brewed with anything from currants to cashew apples.
Wine vinegar is usual in countries like France, Spain and Italy where wine is produced in quantity, but it is not necessarily very good because it happens to be made of wine. lt may be made of wine that is scarcely fit to drink. and it will be made by the quick process, in which wine is sprinkled over a container full of wood shavings (to provide a large surface) with a revolving ‘sparger’, a miniature version of a sewage works sprinkler. As the wine dribbles down over the shavings, it is violently attacked by the organisms that cover them, and everything is kept well oxygenated by air blown in at the bottom. In the process, quite a lot of heat is generated -the tank is maintained at 35-38°C (95-100°F), which is hot enough to drive off any of the finer and more volatile flavours.
This is why the best vinegar is still made by the old Orléans process, in which barrels are filled with a mixture of 3 parts wine to 2 parts vinegar and innoculated with mother of vinegar and left open to allow air to enter. Establishing the vat with vinegar prevents the growth of unwanted organisms and encourages vinegar organisms, which grow best in acid conditions. In the Orléans process, the organisms slowly turn the alcohol in the wine to acid without getting hot and without losing the finer flavours of the wine. At intervals, vinegar is drawn off and more wine is added. Since this is a slow process, Orleans process vinegar
is expensive, especially as the finest vinegar starts with good wine. However, the amount of vinegar used in dressing a salad ought to be small, and it is worth finding a fine wine vinegar to keep just for this purpose. The difference it makes to a salad is enormous.
The town of Modena in northern Italy produces fine wine vinegar, acelo balsamico, which is matured for years – it is said that it is usable after ten years, better after thirty, better still after fifty, and at its best after a hundred or more. lt is too good to use for anything except salads.
Special types of vinegar come from particular wines, for example sherry vinegar. Malt vinegar is essentially beer vinegar (except that the beer is not hopped) and is usually coloured brown with caramel. It is less sour than the run-of-the-mill wine vinegar, but nice flavours do not come from the fermented malt, although some aromatics may be generated by bacteria. Cider vinegar has long been popular in the north-eastern US and in recent years has also become better known in Britain. It is supposed to be more healthy and is a basis for a few American folk medicines. However, cider vinegar has an apple juice taste which a few people, including myself, do not find particularly attractive. White vinegar is as colourless as water (white-wine vinegar has some colour) and is used in pickles for cosmetic reasons. It can be made by decolourizing ordinary vinegar with animal charcoal or can be faked with acetic acid and water.