8. Jonathan Zittrain, “Facebook Could Decide an Election Without Anyone Ever Finding Out,” New Republic, June 1, 2014, http://www.newrepublic.com/article/117878/information-fiduciary-solution-facebook-digital-gerrymandering; Jonathan Zittrain, “Engineering an Election,” Harvard Law Review 127 (June 20, 2014): 335; Reed Albergotti, “Facebook Experiments Had Few Limits,” Wall Street Journal, July 2, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-experiments-had-few-limits-1404344378; Charles Arthur, “If Facebook Can Tweak Our Emotions and Make Us Vote, What Else Can It Do?” Guardian, June 30, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jun/30/if-facebook-can-tweak-our-emotions-and-make-us-vote-what-else-can-it-do; Sam Byford, “Facebook Offers Explanation for Controversial News Feed Psychology Experiment,” Verge, June 29, 2014, https://www.theverge.com/2014/6/29/5855710/facebook-responds-to-psychology-research-controversy; Chris Chambers, “Facebook Fiasco: Was Cornell’s Study of ‘Emotional Contagion’ an Ethics Breach?” Guardian, July 1, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2014/jul/01/facebook-cornell-study-emotional-contagion-ethics-breach.
9. Adam D. I. Kramer, Jamie E. Guillory, and Jeffrey T. Hancock, “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion Through Social Networks,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 24 (2014): 8788–90, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320040111.
10. Kramer, Guillory, and Hancock, “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion.”
11. Matthew R. Jordan, Dorsa Amir, and Paul Bloom, “Are Empathy and Concern Psychologically Distinct?” Emotion 16, no. 8 (2016): 1107–16, https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000228; Marianne Sonnby-Borgström, “Automatic Mimicry Reactions as Related to Differences in Emotional Empathy,” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 43, no. 5 (2002): 433–43, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00312; Rami Tolmacz, “Concern and Empathy: Two Concepts or One?” American Journal of Psychoanalysis 68, no. 3 (2008): 257–75, https://doi.org/10.1057/ajp.2008.22; Ian E. Wickramasekera and Janet P. Szlyk, “Could Empathy Be a Predictor of Hypnotic Ability?” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 51, no. 4 (2003): 390–99, https://doi.org/10.1076/iceh.51.4.390.16413; E. B. Tone and E. C. Tully, “Empathy as a ‘Risky Strength’: A Multilevel Examination of Empathy and Risk for Internalizing Disorders,” Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 4 (2014): 1547–65, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414001199; Ulf Dimberg and Monika Thunberg, “Empathy, Emotional Contagion, and Rapid Facial Reactions to Angry and Happy Facial Expressions: Empathy and Rapid Facial Reactions,” PsyCh Journal 1, no. 2 (2012): 118–27, https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.4; Tania Singer and Claus Lamm, “The Social Neuroscience of Empathy,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1156 (April 1, 2009): 81–96, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x; Douglas F. Watt, “Social Bonds and the Nature of Empathy,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 12, nos. 8–9 (2005): 185–209.
12. Jocelyn Shu et al., “The Role of Empathy in Experiencing Vicarious Anxiety,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 146, no. 8 (2017): 1164–88, https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000335; Tone and Tully, “Empathy as a ‘Risky Strength.’”
13. Chambers, “Facebook Fiasco”; Adrienne LaFrance, “Even the Editor of Facebook’s Mood Study Thought It Was Creepy,” Atlantic, June 28, 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/06/even-the-editor-of-facebooks-mood-study-thought-it-was-creepy/373649.
14. See LaFrance, “Even the Editor.”
15. Vindu Goel, “Facebook Tinkers with Users’ Emotions in News Feed Experiment, Stirring Outcry,” New York Times, June 29, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/30/technology/facebook-tinkers-with-users-emotions-in-news-feed-experiment-stirring-outcry.html.
16. Albergotti, “Facebook Experiments Had Few Limits”; Chambers, “Facebook Fiasco.”
17. Inder M. Verma, “Editorial Expression of Concern and Correction Regarding ‘Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion Through Social Networks,’” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 29 (2014): 8788–90.
18. James Grimmelmann, “Law and Ethics of Experiments on Social Media Users,” Colorado Technology Law Journal 13 (January 1, 2015): 255.
19. Michelle N. Meyer et al., “Misjudgements Will Drive Social Trials Underground,” Nature 511 (July 11, 2014): 265; Michelle Meyer, “Two Cheers for Corporate Experimentation,” Colorado Technology Law Journal 13 (May 7, 2015): 273.
20. Darren Davidson, “Facebook Targets ‘Insecure’ to Sell Ads,” Australian, May 1, 2017.
21. Antonio Garcia-Martinez, “I’m an Ex-Facebook Exec: Don’t Believe What They Tell You About Ads,” Guardian, May 2, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/02/facebook-executive-advertising-data-comment.
22. Dylan D. Wagner and Todd F. Heatherton, “Self-Regulation and Its Failure: The Seven Deadly Threats to Self-Regulation,” in APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2015), 805–42, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2e62/15047e3a296184c3698f 3553255ffabd46c7.pdf (italics mine); William M. Kelley, Dylan D. Wagner, and Todd F. Heatherton, “In Search of a Human Self-Regulation System,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 38, no. 1 (2015): 389–411, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014243.
23. David Modic and Ross J. Anderson, “We Will Make You Like Our Research: The Development of a Susceptibility-to-Persuasion Scale” (SSRN scholarly paper, Social Science Research Network, April 28, 2014), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2446971. See also Mahesh Gopinath and Prashanth U. Nyer, “The Influence of Public Commitment on the Attitude Change Process: The Effects of Attitude Certainty, PFC and SNI” (SSRN scholarly paper, Social Science Research Network, August 29, 2007), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1010562.
24. See Dyani Sabin, “The Secret History of ‘Pokémon Go’ as Told by the Game’s Creator,” Inverse, February 28, 2017, https://www.inverse.com/article/28485-pokemon-go-secret-history-google-maps-ingress-john-hanke-updates.
25. Tim Bradshaw, “The Man Who Put ‘Pokémon Go’ on the Map,” Financial Times, July 27, 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/7209d7ca-49d3-11e6-8d68-72e9211e86ab.
26. Sebastian Weber and John Hanke, “Reality as a Virtual Playground,” Making Games, January 22, 2015, http://www.makinggames.biz/feature/reality-as-a-virtual-playground,7286.html.
27. “John Hanke at SXSW 2017: We’ll Announce Some New Products at the Next Event!” Pokemon GO Hub, March 10, 2017, http://web.archive.org/web/20170330220737/https://pokemongohub.net/john-hanke-sxsw-2017-well-announce-new-products-next-event.
28. Sabin, “The Secret History of ‘Pokémon Go.’”
29. Weber and Hanke, “Reality as a Virtual Playground.”
30. See Hal Hodson, “Why Google’s Ingress Game Is a Data Gold Mine,” New Scientist, September 28, 2012, https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg 21628936-200-why-googles-ingress-game-is-a-data-gold-mine.
31. Sabin, “The Secret History of ‘Pokémon Go.’”
32. Ryan Wynia, “Behavior Design Bootcamp with Stanford’s Dr. BJ Fogg,” Technori, October 19, 2012, http://technori.com/2012/10/2612-behavior-design-bootcamp; Ryan Wynia, “BJ Fogg’s Behavior Design Bootcamp: Day 2,” Technori, October 22, 2012, http://technori.com/2012/10/2613-behavior-de sign-bootcamp-day-2. The Stanford researcher B. J. Fogg in his 2003 book Persuasive Technology recognized that computer game designers seek to change people’s behaviors with Skinnerian-style conditioning, concluding that “good game play and effective operant conditioning go hand in hand.”
33. Kevin Werbach, “(Re)Defining Gamification: A Process Approach,” in Persuasive Technology, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, International Conference on Persuasive Technology (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2014), 266–72, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07127-5_23; Kevin Werbach and Dan Hunter, For the Win: How Game Thinking Can Revolutionize Your Business (Philadelphia: Wharton Digital Press, 2012).
34. Michael Sailer et al., “How Gamification Motivates: An Experimental Study of
the Effects of Specific Game Design Elements on Psychological Need Satisfaction,” Computers in Human Behavior 69 (April 2017): 371–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.033; J. Hamari, J. Koivisto, and H. Sarsa, “Does Gamification Work?—a Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification,” in 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2014, 3025–34, https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.2014.377; Carina Soledad González and Alberto Mora Carreño, “Methodological Proposal for Gamification in the Computer Engineering Teaching,” 2014 International Symposium on Computers in Education (SIIE), 1–34; Dick Schoech et al., “Gamification for Behavior Change: Lessons from Developing a Social, Multiuser, Web-Tablet Based Prevention Game for Youths,” Journal of Technology in Human Services 31, no. 3 (2013): 197–217, https://doi.org/10.1080/15228835.2013.812512.
35. Yu-kai Chou, “A Comprehensive List of 90+ Gamification Cases with ROI Stats,” Yu-Kai Chou: Gamification & Behavioral Design, January 23, 2017, http://yukaichou.com/gamification-examples/gamification-stats-figures.
36. Ian Bogost, “Persuasive Games: Exploitationware,” Gamasutra, May 3, 2011, http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/134735/persuasive_games_exploita tionware.php; Adam Alter, Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked (New York: Penguin, 2017).
37. Jessica Conditt, “The Pokémon Go Plus Bracelet Is Great for Grinding,” Engadget, September 17, 2016, https://www.engadget.com/2016/09/17/pokemon-go-plus-hands-on; Sarah E. Needleman, “‘Pokémon Go’ Wants to Take Monster Battles to the Street,” Wall Street Journal, September 10, 2015, https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2015/09/10/pokemon-go-wants-to-take-monster-battles-to-the-street; Patience Haggin, “Alphabet Spinout Scores Funding for Augmented Reality Pokémon Game,” Wall Street Journal, February 26, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/venture capital/2016/02/26/alphabet-spinout-scores-funding-for-augmented-reality-pokemon-game.
38. Joseph Schwartz, “5 Charts That Show Pokémon GO’s Growth in the US,” Similarweb Blog, July 10, 2016, https://www.similarweb.com/blog/pokemon-go.
39. Nick Wingfield and Mike Isaac, “Pokémon Go Brings Augmented Reality to a Mass Audience,” New York Times, July 11, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/12/technology/pokemon-go-brings-augmented-reality-to-a-mass-audience.html.
40. Polly Mosendz and Luke Kawa, “Pokémon Go Brings Real Money to Random Bars and Pizzerias,” Bloomberg.com, July 11, 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-07-11/pok-mon-go-brings-real-money-to-random-bars-and-pizzerias; Abigail Gepner, Jazmin Rosa, and Sophia Rosenbaum, “There’s a Pokémon in My Restaurant, and Business Is Booming,” New York Post, July 12, 2016, http://nypost.com/2016/07/12/pokemania-runs-wild-through-city-causing-crime-accidents; Jake Whittenberg, “Pokemon GO Saves Struggling Wash. Ice Cream Shop,” KSDK, August 9, 2016, http://www.ksdk.com/news/pokemon-go-saves-struggling-business/292596081.
41. Wingfield and Isaac, “Pokémon Go Brings Augmented Reality.”
42. Sabin, “The Secret History of ‘Pokémon Go.’”
43. Tim Bradshaw and Leo Lewis, “Advertisers Set for a Piece of ‘Pokémon Go’ Action,” Financial Times, July 13, 2016; Jacky Wong, “Pokémon Mania Makes Mint for Bank of Kyoto,” Wall Street Journal, July 12, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2016/07/12/pokemon-mania-makes-mint-for-bank-of-kyoto.
44. See Bradshaw and Lewis, “Advertisers Set for a Piece” (italics mine).
45. Jon Russell, “Pokémon Go Will Launch in Japan Tomorrow with Game’s First Sponsored Location,” TechCrunch, July 19, 2016, http://social.techcrunch.com/2016/07/19/pokemon-go-is-finally-launching-in-japan-tomorrow; Takashi Mochizuki, “McDonald’s Unit to Sponsor ‘Pokémon Go’ in Japan,” Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/mcdonalds-unit-to-sponsor-pokemon-go-in-japan-1468936459; Stephen Wilmot, “An Alternative Way to Monetize Pokémon Go,” Wall Street Journal, July 29, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2016/07/29/an-alternative-way-to-monetize-pokemon-go; “Pokémon GO Frappuccino at Starbucks,” Starbucks Newsroom, December 8, 2016, https://news.starbucks.com/news/starbucks-pokemon-go; Megan Farokhmanesh, “Pokémon Go Is Adding 10.5K Gym and Pokéstop Locations at Sprint Stores,” Verge, December 7, 2016, http://www.theverge.com/2016/12/7/13868086/pokemon-go-sprint-store-new-gyms-pokestops; Mike Ayers, “Pokémon Tracks Get a Pokémon Go Bump on Spotify,” Wall Street Journal, July 12, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2016/07/12/pokemon-tracks-get-a-pokemon-go-bump-on-spotify; Josie Cox, “Insurer Offers Pokémon Go Protection (But It’s Really Just Coverage for Your Phone),” Wall Street Journal (blog), July 22, 2016, https://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2016/07/22/insurer-offers-pokemon-go-protection-but-its-really-just-coverage-for-your-phone; Ben Fritz, “Disney Looks to Tech Behind Pokemon Go,” Wall Street Journal, August 5, 2016.
46. See Adam Sherrill, “Niantic Believes Pokémon GO Has ‘Only Just Scratched the Surface’ of AR Gameplay Mechanics,” Gamnesia, May 5, 2017, https://www.gamnesia.com/news/niantic-believes-pokemon-go-has-only-just-scratched-the-surface-of-ar.
47. Joseph Bernstein, “You Should Probably Check Your Pokémon Go Privacy Settings,” BuzzFeed, July 11, 2016, https://www.buzzfeed.com/josephbernstein/heres-all-the-data-pokemon-go-is-collecting-from-your-phone.
48. Natasha Lomas, “Pokémon Go Wants to Catch (Almost) All Your App Permissions,” TechCrunch, July 16, 2016, http://social.techcrunch.com/2016/07/11/pokemon-go-wants-to-catch-almost-all-your-permissions.
49. Marc Rotenberg, Claire Gartland, and Natashi Amlani, “EPIC Letter to FTC Chair Edith Ramirez,” July 22, 2016, 4, https://epic.org/privacy/ftc/FTC-letter-Pokemon-GO-07-22-2016.pdf.
50. Al Franken, “Letter to John Hanke, CEO of Niantic, Inc. from U.S. Senator Al Franken,” July 12, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/us-senator-al-franken-writes-to-pokmon-go-developers-niantic-privacy-full-letter2016-7.
51. Courtney Greene Power, “Letter to U.S. Senator Al Franken from General Counsel for Niantic, Inc. Courtney Greene Power,” August 26, 2016.
52. Rebecca Lemov, World as Laboratory: Experiments with Mice, Mazes, and Men (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005), 189.
53. H. Keith Melton and Robert Wallace, The Official CIA Manual of Trickery and Deception (New York: William Morrow, 2010), 4.
54. Lemov, World as Laboratory, 189; Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 129.
55. Melton and Wallace, The Official CIA Manual of Trickery and Deception.
56. “Church Committee: Book I—Foreign and Military Intelligence,” Mary Ferrell Foundation, 1975, 390, https://www.maryferrell.org/php/showlist.php?docset =1014.
57. Lemov, World as Laboratory, 200.
58. Alexandra Rutherford, “The Social Control of Behavior Control: Behavior Modification, Individual Rights, and Research Ethics in America, 1971–1979,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 42, no. 3 (2006): 206, https://doi.org/10.1002/jhbs.20169.
59. Noam Chomsky, “The Case Against B. F. Skinner,” New York Review of Books, December 30, 1971.
60. John L. McClellan et al., “Individual Rights and the Federal Role in Behavior Modification; A Study Prepared by the Staff of the Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-Third Congress, Second Session,” November 1974, iii–iv, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED103726.
61. McClellan et al., “Individual Rights,” IV, 21.
62. McClellan et al., 13–14.
63. P. London, “Behavior Technology and Social Control—Turning the Tables,” APA Monitor (April 1974): 2 (italics mine); Rutherford, “The Social Control of Behavior Control.”
64. Rutherford, “The Social Control of Behavior Control,” 213.
65. “The Belmont Report—Office of the Secretary—Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research—the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research,” Regulations & Policy, Office for Human Resear
ch Protections, US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, January 28, 2010, https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html; Rutherford, “The Social Control of Behavior Control,” 215.
66. See Rutherford, “The Social Control of Behavior Control,” 217.
67. Daniel W. Bjork, B. F. Skinner: A Life (New York: Basic, 1993), 220.
68. “Anthropotelemetry: Dr. Schwitzgebel’s Machine.” Harvard Law Review 80, no. 2 (1966): 403–21, https://doi.org/10.2307/1339322 (italics mine).
CHAPTER ELEVEN
1. Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind, vol. 2, Willing (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978), 13–14.
2. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 244.
3. See also the discussion in John R. Searle, Making the Social World: The Structure of Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 133.
4. Searle, Making the Social World, 133, 136.
5. Searle, 194–95. See also Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz, who offers a pragmatic theory of human rights that is relevant to my analysis. He argues that “rights are those fundamental preferences that experience and history—especially of great injustices—have taught are so essential that the citizenry should be persuaded to entrench them and not make them subject to easy change by shifting majorities.” Rights, in this way, are derived from wrongs. His is a “bottom-up” approach because there is typically far more consensus on what constitutes a terrible injustice than there is agreement on the conditions for perfect justice. Alan M. Dershowitz, Rights from Wrongs: A Secular Theory of the Origins of Rights (New York: Basic, 2004), 81–96.
6. Sir Henry Maine, Ancient Law (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1861).
7. Liam B. Murphy, “The Practice of Promise and Contract” (working paper, New York University Public Law and Legal Theory, 2014), 2069; Avery W. Katz, “Contract Authority—Who Needs It?” University of Chicago Law Review 81, no. 4 (2014): 27; Robin Bradley Kar, “Contract as Empowerment,” University of Chicago Law Review 83, no. 2 (2016): 1.
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