32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina. Dokumenty i materialy, p. 45.
35. Pravda, 5 February 1931
36. See J. Harris, The Great Urals, pp. 70–1.
37. See R. W. Davies, Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy, 1931–1933, pp. 302–16.
25. Ascent to Supremacy
1. About his real birthday see above, p. 14.
2. The exception in the Politburo was Bukharin.
3. See W. Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, p. 63.
4. Tak govoril Kaganovich, pp. 59–60.
5. Molotov. Poluderzhavnyi vlastelin, p. 262.
6. To chair the Politburo, the Orgburo or the Secretariat was not the same as to be its chairman; and when in 1928 the minutes recorded Kaganovich as Orgburo Chairman, there was a furious protest and Molotov had to agree to amend them: RGASPI, f. 81, op. 3, d. 255, p. 98. See below, p. 363 for the possibility that Stalin learned from the precedent of the Roman Emperor Augustus.
7. See E. A. Rees, ‘Stalin as Leader, 1924–1937: From Oligarch to Dictator’, p. 27. See also R. W. Davies, M. Ilic and O. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Politburo and Economic Decision-Making’, p. 110.
8. Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, pp. 222–3.
9. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, pp. 144–5.
10. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 191.
11. Ibid., p. 237.
12. See O. Khlevnyuk, Stalin i Ordzhonikidze, pp. 19–31.
13. Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V.M. Molotovu, p. 217.
14. Ibid., pp. 231–2.
15. Ibid., p. 232.
16. Ibid., pp. 231–2.
17. Quoted in B. S. Ilizarov, Tainaya zhizn’ Stalina, p. 93.
18. RGASPI, f. 78, op. 2, d. 38, p. 38.
19. Stalin i Kaganovich. Perepiska, p. 187.
20. Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, p. 166.
21. Ibid., p. 167.
22. See T. H. Rigby, ‘Was Stalin a Disloyal Patron?’
23. A. Kriegel and S. Courtois, Eugen Fried, pp. 121 and 125.
24. Stalin i Kaganovich, p. 665: telegram of 6 September 1936.
25. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, p. 33.
26. Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu, p. 107.
27. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 180.
28. L. Trotskii, Moya zhizn’.
29. Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V.M. Molotovu, 1925–1936 gg., p. 231.
30. ITsKKPSS, no. 11 (1990), pp. 63–74.
31. Reabilitatsiya: politicheskie protsessy 30–50-kh godov, pp. 334–443. See also The Road to Terror (ed. O. V. Naumov and J. A. Getty) pp. 52–4.
32. S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu, pp. 54–5.
33. L’Armata Rossa e la collettiviazione delle campagne nell’ URSS (1928–1933), pp. 164, 302 and 356.
26. The Death of Nadya
1. R. Bullard, Inside Stalin’s Russia, p. 142.
2. Ibid., p. 208.
3. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 286.
4. S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu, pp. 99–100.
5. Reported by R. Richardson from an interview with Svetlana Allilueva, The Long Shadow, p. 125.
6. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, p. 77.
7. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 113, d. 869, p. 61.
8. Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, p. 29.
9. Ibid., p. 30.
10. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 113, d. 869.
11. Interview with Kira Allilueva, 14 December 1998. See also L. Vasil’eva, Kremlëvskie zhëny, p. 259.
12. Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, pp. 31 and 33.
13. See S. Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, p. 50.
14. GARF, f. 3316/ya, op. 2, d. 2016, p. 3.
15. RGASPI, f. 85, op. 28, d. 63, pp. 1–3.
16. Molotov. Poluderzhavnyi vlastelin, pp. 307–8.
17. Ibid., p. 307.
18. Ibid., p. 308.
19. S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu, p. 31.
20. GARF, f. 7523sg, op. 149a, d. 2, p. 7.
21. GARF, f. 7523sg, op. 149a, d. 2, pp. 10, 11 and 13.
22. GARF, f. 81, op. 3, d. 77, p. 48.
23. RGASPI, f. 3, op. 1, d. 3230.
24. R. Bullard, Inside Stalin’s Russia, p. 153.
25. GARF, f. 3316/ya, op. 2, d. 2016, p. 2.
26. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, pp. 601 and 667–9.
27. Molotov. Poluderzhavnyi vlastelin, p. 308.
28. ‘Dnevnik M. A. Svanidze’ in Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, p. 177.
29. A. Mgeladze, Stalin, kakim ya ego znal, p. 117.
30. A. Rybin, ‘Ryadom so Stalinym’, Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, no. 3 (1988), p. 87.
31. A. Mikoyan, Tak bylo, p. 356.
32. Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 35.
33. A. Mikoyan, Tak bylo, p. 353.
34. RGASPI, f. 3, op. 1, d. 3231.
35. Ibid.
36. S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu, pp. 19 and 21.
37. See S. Lakoba, Ocherki politicheskoi istorii Abkhazii, p. 120.
38. Ibid., p. 118.
39. Ibid., pp. 132–3.
40. Ibid., pp. 116–17.
41. Ibid., p. 115.
27. Modernity’s Sorcerer
1. See for example his speech to an all-Union conference of ‘proletarian students’, Pravda, 16 April 1925.
2. Semnadtsatyi s”ezd Vsesoyuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b), p. 28.
3. Ibid., p. 24.
4. Cited by A. Luukkanen, The Religious Policy of the Stalinist State, p. 140.
5. See J. Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928–1932.
6. M. Gor’kii, L. Averbakh and S. Firin, Belomorsko-baltiiskii kanal imeni I. V. Stalina.
7. See R. Medvedev, Problems in the Literary Biography of Mikhail Sholokhov.
8. Exchange of letters between Stalin and Sholokhov in 1933, Voprosy istorii, no. 3 (1994), pp. 9–22.
9. See below, p. 333–4.
10. See above, p. 333.
11. GDMS, Hall III contains the original annotations.
12. I am grateful to Zakro Megreshvili for information about his stepfather Shalva Nutsubidze’s reaction to Stalin’s editorial work.
13. S. Allilueva, Tol’ko odin god, p. 337.
14. Krasnaya zvezda, 5 January 1995.
15. Istoriya sovetskoi politicheskoi tsenzury. Dokumenty i kommentarii, p. 484.
16. See below, p. 444.
17. See the translation in R. C. Tucker, Stalin in Power, pp. 205–6.
18. A. Akhmatova, Sochineniya, vol. 2, pp. 167–8
19. See below, p. 361.
20. See R. Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia, chap. 12.
21. See ibid. and C. Kelly, Refining Russia, pp. 285–309.
28. Fears in Victory
1. See the OGPU reports in Tragediya sovetskoi derevni, vol. 3, pp. 318–54.
2. See R. W. Davies, Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy, 1931–1933, pp. 188–91; J. J. Rossman, ‘The Teikovo Cotton Workers’ Strike of April 1932’, pp. 50–66. For a general account see R. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine.
3. See R. W. Davies and S. G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger.
4. Stalin i Kaganovich: Perepiska, pp. 132 ff.
5. See A. Nove, An Economic History of the U.S.S.R., pp. 224–5 and 227.
6. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 13, p. 186. See the account in R. W. Davies, M. Ilic and O. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Politburo and Economic Policy-Making’, p. 114.
7. Stalin i Kaganovich: Perepiska, p. 260.
8. Ibid., p. 235.
9. See R. W. Davies, M. Ilic and O. Khlevnyuk, ‘The Politburo and Economic Policy-Making’, p. 110.
10. Letter of 18 June 1932: Stalin i Kaganovich. Perepiska., p. 179.
11. Ibid., pp. 282 and 290.
12. Ibid., p. 274.
/> 13. Ibid., p. 359.
14. Ibid., p. 479.
15. See R. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow; R. W. Davies, Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy; and R. W. Davies and S. G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger.
16. Ibid., p. 241.
17. See E. A. Rees, ‘Republican and Regional Leaders at the XVII Party Congress in 1934’, especially pp. 85–6.
18. See R. Conquest, The Great Terror. A Reassessment, pp. 31–46
19. Semnadtsatyi s”ezd Vsesoyuznoi Kommunisticheskoi Partii (b), p. 262.
20. F. Benvenuti, ‘Kirov nella Politica Sovietica’, pp. 283, 303–7 and 315–59.
21. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU-nOGPU–NKVD, p. 569.
22. See R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, pp. 39–52.
23. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 650.
24. See R. W. Davies, Soviet History in the Yeltsin Era, p. 155.
25. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 388.
26. See O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-i, p. 49.
27. See F. Benvenuti and S. Pons, Il sistema di potere dello Stalinismo, p. 105.
28. ITsKKPSS, no. 9 (1989), p. 39
29. Reabilitatsiya: politicheskie protsessy 30–50-kh godov, especially pp. 176–9.
30. See F. Benvenuti, Fuoco sui sabotatori! Stachanovismo e organizzazione industriale in Urss, 1934–1938, chaps. 3 ff.
31. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 749: report by A. Vyshin-ski to Stalin and Molotov, 16 February 1936.
32. See A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, p. 226.
33. Ibid., p. 227.
34. See R. Moorsteen and R. P. Powell, The Soviet Capital Stock, 1928–1962.
35. See A. Ponsi, Partito unico e democrazia in URSS. La Costituzione del ’36, pp. 20 ff.
36. See the data cited on religious groups by A. Luukkanen, The Religious Policy of the Stalinist State, pp. 142–7.
37. See O. V. Khlevnyuk, 1937-i, p. 53.
38. See S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 289–96.
39. Le repressioni degli anni trenta nell’Armata Rossa, p. 156.
40. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 753.
41. See B. Starkov, Dela i lyudi stalinskogo vremeni, p. 39.
42. Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK–GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 767.
29. Ruling the Nations
1. This is calculated from the figures of the 1926 census in V. Kozlov, The Peoples of the Soviet Union, p. 69.
2. S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu, p. 29.
3. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina. Dokumenty i materialy, p. 158.
4. See above, p. 302.
5. Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 48.
6. Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin (1938), p. 5.
7. K. Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniya, p. 37.
8. See S. Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, pp. 289–96.
9. See F. Bettanin, La fabbrica del mito, p. 89.
10. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli anni di Mosca (1934–1945), p. 81.
11. See S. Crisp, ‘Soviet language Planning, 1917–1953’, pp. 27–9.
12. See S. Kuleshov and V. Strada, Il fascismo russo, pp. 229–38.
13. See T. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 206–7. See also H. Kuromiya, ‘The Donbass’, pp. 157–8.
14. See T. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 302–3.
15. See above, pp. 276–7.
16. Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 48.
17. See above, pp. 204–5.
18. See G. Hewitt, ‘Language Planning in Georgia’, pp. 137–9.
19. See the files reproduced in Abkhaziya: dokumenty svidel’stvuyut. 1937–1953.
20. GDMS, Hall III holds a copy of Stalin’s suggestion for Nutsubidze’s anthology.
21. See above, pp. 96–101.
22. See R. Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia, pp. 206–7 and 318.
23. Ibid.
24. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina. Dokumenty i materialy, p. 151 (first variant of notes taken by R. P. Khmelnitski).
25. See D. Lieven, Nicholas II, p. 163.
26. ‘Dnevnik M. A. Svanidze’ in Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, pp. 174–5.
27. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina, p. 55.
28. Ibid., p. 123.
29. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli anni di Mosca (1934–1945), p. 81.
30. ‘Pravil’naya politika pravitel’stva reshaet uspekh armii. Kto dostoin byt’ marshalom?’, Istochnik, no. 3: record of Stalin’s speech.
31. ‘Dnevnik M. A. Svanidze’ in Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, pp. 176.
32. For a different interpretation see D. Brandenberger, Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931–1956.
33. Istochnik, no. 1 (2002), p. 105.
34. See the analysis of D. V. Kolesov, I. V. Stalin: Pravo na zhizn’, pp. 37–8. I am grateful to Ronald Hingley for our discussions of Stalin’s oratorical idiosyncrasies.
30. Mind of Terror
1. Stalin i Kaganovich. Perepiska, p. 425; see also Lubyanka. Stalin i VChK– GPU–OGPU–NKVD, p. 565.
2. See Stalin i Kaganovich; Pis’ma I. V. Stalina V. M. Molotovu.
3. This was also Molotov’s attitude, at least by the time of the Second World War: see V. Berezhkov, Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina, p. 226. I eschew further use of this source in following chapters and am grateful to Hugh Lunghi, one of Churchill’s interpreters, for pointing out the many unreliable aspects of Berezhkov’s memoirs, including its title.
4. L. Trotsky, Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence.
5. See for example S. Alliluev, Proidënnyi put’ ; A. S. Allilueva, Vospominaniya; S. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu and Tol’ko odin god.
6. Above all, see the speech he gave at a reception for G. Dimitrov in on 8 November 1937: below, p. 333.
7. N. K. Baibakov, 0t Stalina go Yel’tsina, p. 48.
8. Of course the idea that Stalin really was so undemonstrative in the 1920s is implausible.
9. See above, pp. 4–8.
10. R. Medvedev, Let History Judge, p. 15.
11. Ibid., p. 13.
12. ITsKKPSS, no. 11 (1989), p. 169.
13. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina, p. 157: this comment was an interjection in another interjection, by Voroshilov, in a speech at the twentieth-anniversary dinner in honour of the October Revolution.
14. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, p. 334.
15. L. Trotskii, Terrorizm i kommunizm.
16. M. Jansen, A Show Trial Under Lenin.
17. In Russian the words were: Molodets, kak on zdorovo eto sdelal! The witness was Anastas Mikoyan: see his Tak bylo, p. 534. V. Berezhkov, one of Stalin’s interpreters, recalled Mikoyan’s words only slightly differently: Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina, p. 14.
18. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina, p. 148.
19. See T. Dragadze, Rural Families in Soviet Georgia, pp. 43–4.
20. See RGASPI, f. 558, op. 3, d. 37: this was the book Drevnyaya Evropa i Vostok (Moscow–Petrograd, 1923)
21. Stalin i Kaganovich. Perepiska, p. 273.
22. Iosif Stalin v ob”yatiyakh sem’i, p. 17.
23. See below, pp. 578–9.
24. RGASPI, f. 558, op. 3, d. 167: see for example pp. 43 and 47.
25. Ibid., p. 57.
26. Ibid., p. 248.
27. See below, pp. 580–1.
28. N. Ryzhkov, Perestroika: istoriya predatel’stv, pp. 354–5. See also E. A. Rees, Political Thought from Machiavelli to Stalin: Revolutionary Machiavellism.
29. Zastol’nye rechi Stalina, p. 180.
31. The Great Terrorist
1. The term, invented by the historian Robert Conquest for his book of the same name in 1968, is now the common one in use in Russia as well as the rest of the world.
2. ‘Stenogrammy ochnykh stavok v TsK VKP(b). Dekabr’ 1936 goda’, Voprosy istorii, no. 3 (2002), p. 4.
3. Ibid., p. 5.
4. See in
particular J. A. Getty, The Origins of the Great Purges.
5. See R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, pp. 3–22 and 53–70.
6. Molotov. Poluderzhavnyi vlastelin, p. 464; Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 35.
7. O. Khlevniuk, ‘The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937–1938’ in J. Cooper et al., Soviet History, 1917–1953; O. Khlevniuk, ‘The Reasons for the “Great Terror”: The Foreign-Political Aspect’ in S. Pons and A. Romano, Russia in the Age of Wars, 1914–1945.
8. Stalin i Kaganovich. Perepiska, pp. 682–3. Although Stalin referred here to the OGPU, its department name after being subsumed in the NKVD in 1934 was the GUGB.
9. See R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, pp. 135–73
10. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 14, pp. 189–91.
11. ‘Materialy fevral’skogo-martovskogo plenuma TsK VKP(b) 1937 goda’, Voprosy istorii, no. 10 (1994), pp. 13–27; no. 2 (1995), pp. 22–6; and no. 3 (1995), pp. 3–15.
12. Quoted in O. Khlevnyuk, 1937-i, p. 77.
13. See M. Jansen and N. Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner, pp. 76–7.
14. B. Starkov, Dela i lyudi stalinskogo vremeni, p. 47.
15. Ibid., pp. 48–9.
16. Trud, 4 June 1992.
17. Ibid.
18. N. Okhotin and A. Roginskii, ‘Iz istorii “nemetskoi operatsii” NKVD 1937–1938 gg.’, p. 46.
19. Izvestiya, 10 June 1992.
20. Tak govoril Kaganovich, p. 46.
21. Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, p. 38.
22. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, pp. 364–97
23. RGASPI, f. 73, op. 2, d. 19, p. 101.
24. See R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment, p. 245.
25. See S. S. Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, pp. 185–6.
32. The Cult of Impersonality
1. I. Tovstukha, ‘Stalin (Dzhughashvili), Iosif Vissarionovich’, pp. 698–700.
2. Pravda, 21 December 1929.
3. See below, pp. 541–2.
4. ‘Stalin o “Kratkom kurse po istorii VKP(b)”. Stenogramma vystupleniya no soveshchanii propagandistov Moskvy i Leningrada…’, Istoricheskii arkhiv, no. 5 (1994), p. 10.
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