115 “whether you want to survive the war of Armageddon.” Ibid., pp. 6-7.
116 “to frighten the black men who are still dead.” Ibid., p. 7.
116 “very wrong that sisters are not coming in.” Ibid., p. 10.
116 “who has any chance to save himself.” Ibid., p. 22.
116 “so if you are not white you must be black.” Ibid., p. 11.
117 “many members . . . as he possibly can.” Ibid., pp. 33-34.
117 commitment to the international Islamic community. See Yvonne Haddad and Jane Smith, Mission to America: Five Islamic Sectarian Communities in North America (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993), pp. 49-78.
117 “Black Muslims” to describe the Nation of Islam. Ibid., p. 252.
117 “required precision and order of the service.” Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan, 1985), p. 105.
118 “intercessors between humans and God.” Ibid., p. 237.
118 generally have not participated in politics. Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (London: I. B. Taurus, 1982), pp. 22, 26-27.
118 religious knowledge and truth over time. Ibid., p. 23.
118 but who also practices spiritual self-discipline. Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam, pp. 274-75.
119 transnational conference of colored peoples in history. George McTurnan Kahin, The Asian-African Conference: Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1956), p. 39.
120 decline and fall of European and U.S. power. Ibid., p. 81. See Liz Mazucci, “Going Back to Our Own: Interpreting Malcolm X's Transition from ‘Black Asiatic’ to ‘Afro-American,’ ” Souls, vol. 7, no. 1 (Winter 2005), pp. 66-83.
120 “are united all over the world to fight the ‘devils.’ ” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, May 23, 1955.
120 Pan-Africanism, Pan-Islam, and Third World liberation. Melani McAlister, “One Black Allah: The Middle East in the Cultural Politics of African American Liberation, 1955-1970,” American Quarterly, vol. 51, no. 3 (1999), p. 631.
121 because he was hardest on himself. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
121 “late for an appointment. Malcolm was like a clock.” Farrakhan, “The Murder of Malcolm X and Its Effects on Black America.”
121 “lost-founds” was sufficient compensation. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
122 “you would have gotten out of the temple.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, January 31, 1956, p. 10.
122 his self-destructive opposition to Elijah Muhammad. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 88. DeCaro interviewed Jeremiah Shabazz in Philadelphia on May 17, 1993.
122 while both were serving time in prison. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 109.
122 more than forty new converts had been won. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 226.
123 highly paid skilled workers and trade unionists. Ibid., p. 229.
123 “than in every place in the world.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office to the Director, no date.
124 “the destruction of the ‘devil.’ ” Ibid.
124 he would be criticized on some point or other. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 226-27.
125 Joseph’s advancement as the Nation’s supreme captain. Collins, Seventh Child, p. 137.
125 damaging rumor about Elijah Muhammad that was circulating. See Evanzz, The Judas Factor, pp. 184-85.
125 “or anything, because you should know better.” Transcript of audiotaped recording. Disciplinary trials supervised by Malcolm X at NOI Temple No. 7, Harlem, mid-September 1956. Audiotape provided by the Nation of Islam and Akbar Muhammad.
126 “good work for Allah and his Messenger in the Nation.” Ibid.
126 “all of those Muslims that follow him are outcasts.” Ibid.
126 to hold a job as a night cook at the temple’s restaurant. FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, December 12, 1956.
126 had been fully restored to his rank. FBI—Gravitt, Memo, New York Office, October 23, 1956.
126 whose members were working-class blacks. Collins, Seventh Child, p. 104.
127 frequent examples of police brutality toward blacks. Tillman Durdin, “Barriers for Negro Here Still High Despite Gains,” New York Times, April 23, 1956.
127 the NOI's restaurant several blocks away with the news. James Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim: ‘God’s Angry Men’ Tangle with Police,” Amsterdam News, May 4, 1957; and Evelyn Cunningham, “Moslems, Cops Battle in Harlem,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 4, 1957.
128 Hinton was transported in an ambulance to Harlem Hospital. Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
128 down the busiest thoroughfare in Harlem. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 238-39.
128 A confrontation appeared inevitable. Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim”; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, pp. 112-13.
128 “No one man should have that much power.” Hicks, “Riot Threat as Cops Beat Muslim.”
129 “as orderly as a battalion of Marines.” Ibid.; and “400 March to Score Police in Harlem,” New York Times, April 29, 1957.
129 judgment that a New York jury had ever awarded. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 239; and “Moslem Announces $Million NY Suit,” Pittsburgh Courier, November 9, 1957. A large silver plate was inserted in Hinton’s skull to replace the bone that the police beating had shattered. Hinton was permanently disabled.
129 or to be “on the side of my people.” DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 113.
Chapter 5: “Brother, a Minister Has to Be Married”
130 “with plagues of cancer, polio, [and] heart disease.” Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,” Amsterdam News, June 1, 1957.
130 he rarely failed to deliver a command performance. See “Mr. X Tells What Islan [sic] Means,” Amsterdam News, April 20, 1957; and Malcolm X, “God’s Angry Men,” Amsterdam News, April 27, 1957.
131 “beginning to realize that there is strength in numbers.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
131 and Ahmad Zaki el-Barail, the Egyptian attaché. “2,000 at Moslem Feast in Harlem,” Amsterdam News, July 20, 1957.
131 an impressive lineup of speakers was present. “New Yorkers to Honor Marcus Garvey,” Chicago Defender, August 2, 1957.
131 “being nothing but ‘puppets for the white man.’ ” “Moslem Speaker Electrifies Garvey Crowd,” Amsterdam News, August 19, 1957.
132 “information with photo showing full description.” Thomas A. Nielson, Chief Inspector, to Paul R. Taylor, Police Chief, Lansing, Michigan; Nielson to John W. Whearty, Chief of Police, Milton, Massachusetts; Nielson to Edward S. Piggins, Police Commissioner, Detroit, Michigan; Nielson to Michigan Parole Commission, Inkster, Michigan; Nielson to Walter Carroll, Chief of Police, Dedham, Massachusetts; Nielson to Superintendent of State Prison, Charlesten [sic], Massachusetts; and Nielson to Superintendent, Massachusetts State Reformatory, Concord Massachusetts, all May 15, 1957 in Malcolm X Bureau of Special Services (BOSS) file, New York Police Department.
132 “does speak out, he is always too late.” “Malcolm X Will Lecture Four Weeks at Detroit Spot,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 17, 1957.
133 begin to take matters into his own hands. “‘Negroes, No Compromise on Civil Rights’ Malcolm X,ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, August 22, 1957.
133 They were hardly “revolutionaries.” W. Haywood Burns, “The Black Muslims in America: A Reinterpretation,” Race, vol. 5, no. 1 (July 1963), pp. 29-31.
134 would become head minister of Temple No. 1. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, April 30, 1958.
134 in that city were “packed to capacity.” “Malcolm X Making Hit in Detroit,” Amsterdam News, September 7, 1957.
134 produced major gains for the Nation. “Malcolm X Returns; Detroit Moslems Grow,” Amsterdam News, October 26, 1957.
134 advised that he take time off, but he adamantly refused. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117; and “Malcolm S
habazz Speaker at DC Brotherhood Feast,” Amsterdam News, November 30, 1959.
134 for his protégé Louis X, the Boston temple minister. “Malcolm X in Boston,” Amsterdam News, November 9, 1957; and DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117.
134 he argued, “but a Jew can.” MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, June 22, 1961.
135 “menace to society, but to world peace.” Telegram, Malcolm X to Stephen Kennedy, NYPD Commissioner, November 2, 1957, BOSS.
135 name and address of his private physician. Memorandum, Walter Upshur to the BOSS Commanding Officer, November 7, 1957, ibid.
135 in Detroit, and soon after departed. MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, p. 20.
135 “uniting Negroes where it is heard.” “Malcolm X Speaks in Detroit Again,” Amsterdam News, December 14, 1957.
135 he was using this name widely by 1957. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 117.
136 “hard-working, Christian-believing black woman.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 274.
136 Atlanta temple had doubled its membership. DeCaro, On the Side of My People, p. 118.
136 secure their release with only minor fines. Ibid., p. 120; and “Moslem Fight R.R. Station Bias, Jailed,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 7, 1957. The county solicitor hearing the case levied fines of $226 on each of the two Muslim men. Considering that the Muslims had severely beaten the white police officer who initially tried to arrest them, it was a remarkably lenient fine.
137 “creation of the Northern white man.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 276-77.
137 Columbia University’s East Asian Institute. James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
138 “being arrested, I will never come back.” James 67X Warden interview, June 18, 2003.
138 “This was not the case.” Ibid.
139 at the Bronx’s Montefiore Hospital. Russell J. Rickford, Betty Shabazz: A Life Before and After Malcolm X (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2003), pp. 2-11, 23, 27, 31.
139 “This man is totally malnourished!” she thought. Ibid., p. 39.
139 “nor drinks and is of high moral character.” MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, p. 20.
140 Sundays reserved for the week’s main religious service. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , pp. 231-32.
141 “that if she complains she is justified.” Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959. Copy in possession of author.
141 “carry a gun, or telling a hen not to cackle.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 231-32.
142 “control her if he expects to get her respect.” Ibid.
142 chaos, or fitna, if not tightly controlled. Robert Dannin observes that “most Muslim commentators regard sexuality as a purely carnal activity that will wreak chaos and confusion in the social body if it is not systematically controlled.” See Dannin, Black Pilgrimage to Islam, p. 217.
142 commitment toward an Islamic lifestyle. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, pp. 300-301.
142 reveal what they hide of their adornment. Holy Qur' an, surah XXIV, verse 31.
143 “wants a sterile wom[a]n?” he asked rhetorically. See Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America, especially chapter 35.
143 “[and] that there will be economic stability.” Farah Jasmine Griffin interview, August 6, 2001.
143 as well as other community concerns. See Cynthia S'thembile West, “Revisiting Female Activism in the 1960s: The Newark Branch Nation of Islam,” Black Scholar, vol. 26, nos. 3-4 (Fall 1996/Winter 1997), pp. 41-48.
144 romantically attracted to her she might reject him. Malcolm X and Haley Autobiography, pp. 231-34.
144 that he thought Betty X was “a fine sister.” Ibid., p. 234.
145 chief instigator of his lieutenant’s marriage. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 62-65, 66.
145 deeply in love with Evelyn Williams. Louis Farrakhan interview, December 27, 2007.
145 pursued her “persistently and correctly.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 62-66.
145 packed her suitcase and made plans to fly to Detroit. Ibid., pp. 66-70; and Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 234-35.
145 but she was determined to have her way. Rickford, Betty Shabazz, pp. 71-73.
145 Malloys “were very friendly, and happily surprised.” Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography , p. 235.
146 “kissing and hugging . . . like Cinderella.” Ibid., pp. 235-36.
146 “all the time. Maybe she did get me!” Ibid., p. 236.
146 ran from the building screaming. Evanzz, The Messenger, p. 261.
147 “who has been brought up under the devil can accept this.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 103; and James 67X Warden interview, July 24, 2007.
147 “the greatest thing in my life.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 78.
148 only name he had come up with was a boy’s. Ibid., p. 109.
148 he virtually disappeared following the birth. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, p. 232; and MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1959, pp. 31-32.
148 to speak at an NOI gathering. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, May 19, 1958, p. 6.
148 before moving along to Newark, New Jersey. Ibid., pp. 18, 22.
148 he allowed her to continue working to clear these debts. Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
149 at meetings held at the Normandie Hall in Los Angeles. MX FBI, Summary Report, New York Office, November 19, 1958, pp. 6-10; “Build Heaven on Earth,” Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, March 27, 1958.
149 gala reception honoring the Republic of Pakistan. “Moslems Celebrate Third Pakistan Republic Day in L.A.,ʺ Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, March 27, 1957.
149 media “since it is controlled by the Zionists.” “Sees Aggressive Zionism as Threat to World Peace,” Los Angeles Herald Dispatch, April 10, 1958; and “Arab Director, Malcolm X Hit U.S. Press, Radio, TV,ʺ Amsterdam News, May 3, 1958. At the April 7, 1958, press conference, Mendi denied that there was any conflict between “Arabs and Jews”; the only real difficulty existed between Arabs and “aggressive Zionists.”
149 African-American churches and the poverty of their worshippers. “Christians Walk Out on Moslems,” Amsterdam News, April 26, 1958.
149 find among those standing his sister Ella. Malcolm X and Haley, Autobiography, pp. 237-38.
149 “she married and of being pregnant, and she cursed me too.ʺ Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
150 “you and her were no longer equals.” Rickford, Betty Shabazz, p. 144.
150 “(not able to engage in the act long enough to satisfy her).” Malcolm X to Elijah Muhammad, March 25, 1959.
150 on the ground floor of the Littles' duplex. The 1958 police raid on Malcolm X's East Elmhurst, Queens, home is recounted in detail in “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters: Home of 'X' Group's Leader Site of Battle,” Amsterdam News, May 24, 1958; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 24, 1958; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 28, 1959.
151 (either in the ground-floor living quarters or in the basement.) Memorandum, Detective William K. DeFossett to BOSS Commanding Officer, May 27, 1958, BOSS.
151 all were eventually released on bail. “Three Moslems Seized as Police Fighters,” Amsterdam News; “Moslems Await 'D-Day' in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier; and “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier, March 28, 1959.
152 one press account, utterly amazed the police. “Moslems Await ‘D-Day’ in N.Y. Court,” Pittsburgh Courier.
152 1958 Saviour’s Day festivities in Chicago. FBI—Betty Sanders (also known as Betty Shabazz and Betty X) file, Summary Report, New York Office, June 30, 1958.
152 and another for $742.42 to Sacks Quality Stores, Inc. FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, December 9, 1964.
152 so they can help their own people. FBI—Sanders, Summary Report, New York Office, June 2, 1959. Betty Shabazz also gave a speech at th
e NOI meeting in Hartford, Connecticut, on September 13, 1959.
153 speeches primarily based on the event. MX FBI, Correlation Summary, New York Office, August 22, 1961, pp. 55-56.
153 “key points that forced the jury into a deadlock.” “Moslems Freed, Cry for Arrest of Cops,” Pittsburgh Courier; and Report of Little-Molette-Simmons Trial, Memorandum, March 27, 1959, BOSS.
154 a surveillance update every six months. MX FBI, Memo, New York Office, July 2, 1958.
154 Jim Crow segregation and Northern discrimination. As Oliver Jones, Jr., has observed, the Nation of Islam drew upon the traditional demands of black nationalism, but it was not primarily concerned with constructing an agenda and political strategy to achieve these objectives. The Muslims’ “belief in a nation of their own never produced a political program for the establishment of such a national home,” Jones noted. “Indeed, the Muslims looked to Allah instead of Washington for the ultimate solution.” See Oliver Jones, Jr., “The Black Muslim Movement and the American Constitutional System,” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 13, no. 4 (June 1983), pp. 417-37.
Chapter 6: “The Hate That Hate Produced”
156 protesters by declaring racial gerrymandering illegal. A good general reference is August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto, third edition (New York: Hill and Wang, 1976), pp. 267-79.
156 to investigating and publicizing racist crimes. Myrlie Evers-Williams and Manning Marable, eds., The Autobiography of Medgar Evers: A Hero’s Life and Legacy Revealed Through His Writings, Letters and Speeches (New York: Basic Civitas, 2005), pp. 14-15.
156 of the new Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Devon W. Carbada and Donald Weise, eds., Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (San Francisco: Cleis, 2003), pp. x-xxv.
156 American Committee for the Protection of the Foreign Born. Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), p. 162.
157 to endear Robeson to white authorities. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Ballantine, 1989), pp. 454-55, 460.
157 to pressure his government to cancel the event. Ibid., pp. 461-62.
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