by Will Dunne
RETROSPECTIVE ELUCIDATION
Problem. The dramatic action comes to a halt so that characters can explain their past lives or share brilliant analyses of themselves and each other. This "all talk, no action" scenario tends to be launched in the absence of conflict and often with the help of a foil who prompts the explainer to keep telling more. When the term "exposition" is used negatively, it is usually to describe explanations like these.
Solution. Bring us into a scene only if something dramatic is about to happen, and keep the focus on the here and now. Use exposition sparinglyadminister it in small doses-and don't reveal the past until you have created a question in the present that makes us want to know what happened before. To manage the challenge of exposition, go to the section "Causing a Scene" and try "There and Then," "Seeing the Scene," and "Talking and Lis- tening."To keep the action more rooted in the present, try physical life exercises such as "Where in the World Are We?," In the Realm of the Senses," and "The Voice of the Setting."
PUNCHES THAT DON'T LAND
Problem. The characters in a scene have clear objectives, problems, and motivations, but the conflict between them grows stale because neither character seems capable of affecting the other in a meaningful way. No one is vulnerable.
Solution. In drama, even the strongest characters have certain vulnerabilities that can expose them to unwanted physical, psychological, social, economic, or political effects. These vulnerabilities are often what fascinate us most about the characters we meet. Make sure that you understand the weaknesses of your characters as well as their strengths. Use this knowledge to disarm them in ways that reveal important truths about who they are, and turn the story in unexpected directions. To explore character vulnerabilities, go to the section "Developing Your Character" and try such exercises as "The Secret Lives of Characters" and "Seven Deadly Sins."To explore these vulnerabilities from an emotional angle, try "Getting Emotional" in the same section and "The Emotional Storyboard" in the "Causing a Scene" section.
NOTHING HAPPENING
Problem. The characters in a scene discuss various topics and engage in various behaviors, but it's not clear what matters most. Their interactions all seem equally important or equally unimportant. As a result, the dramatic elements cancel each other out and do not add up clearly to an important new story event.
Solution. Know the main event of each scene and be able to express it simply. To explore what matters most in a scene, go to the section "Causing a Scene" and try "Basic Scene Starter" and "Scene in a Sentence." To analyze the scene from a beat perspective, try "Thinking in Beats."
SOMETHING HAPPENING, BUT IT DOESN'T MATTER
Problem. A dramatic event occurs, but seems to have little or no impact on anyone in the story. Like a false dilemma, it comes and goes without consequence. Such events are often "darlings" that exist only for their own sake.
Solution. Identify the key events in the throughline of the story. Get rid of any that are not truly essential, and combine any that seem redundant. Know how each key event has changed the world of the story and show this impact in the dramatic action that ensues. To explore scenic events and how they connect or don't connect, try "The Roots of Action" from the "Causing a Scene" section, and "Step by Step," "Picturing the Arc of Action," and "Six Steps of Revision" from the "Building Your Story" section.
LACK OF FOCUS EARLY ON
Problem. We've been watching a dramatic story unfold, but we're not sure whose story it is, what type of dramatic journey we have begun, or what "rules of the game" apply or don't apply. We're more confused than intrigued by what's happening.
Solution. While there is no magic formula for dramatic storytelling, ten minutes is often a milestone in audience participation. By that time, we will probably have decided whether or not to go along for the ride. If you have given us a clear dramatic focus, we will be more likely to break through the intellectual challenge of trying to figure out who's who and what's what in the story, and ease into the more emotional process of becoming part of story events. To explore dramatic focus, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try such exercises as "Whose Story Is It?," "How Will the Tale Be Told?," As the World Turns," and The Art of Grabbing."
MAIN CHARACTER TOO PASSIVE OR MISSING IN ACTION
Problem. The story was centered on one main character, but he or she has now stopped driving the action and has become a passive participant who only reacts to others and external events. This passivity occurs most often in the latter half of the script, where character initiative matters most. In some cases, the main character drops out of sight for long stretches of time while minor characters hijack the story. As a result, the main character becomes the story's least interesting member.
Solution. Know what the character wants-overall in the story and overall in each scene. Then make sure that the character always has a good reason to be working toward at least one of these objectives. To explore sources of character action, go to the section "Developing Your Character" and try "What the Character Believes," "Getting Emotional," and "Spinal Tap." To explore character needs at the scenic level, go to the section "Causing a Scene" and try "The Roots of Action," "What Does the Character Want?," and "Good Intentions." To explore character needs at the story level, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try "Inciting Event."
OFFSTAGE MORE INTERESTING THAN ONSTAGE
Problem. A critical turning point occurs offstage-either before the story, between scenes, or elsewhere during a scene-so that it must be reported to us by one of the characters. We are told, for example, that a new love relationship has begun or that an old one has ended. As a result, we follow the story intellectually rather than emotionally. One of the turning points often missing from a dramatic story is the inciting event: it happened in the backstory rather than in the here and now.
Solution. Remember that we want to be there for the best parts of your story. Make sure that all of the key turning points happen where we can experience them along with the characters. Put the inciting event onstage by starting the story either before this event occurs or while it is taking place. Then let the resulting twists and turns of the dramatic journey take place in front of us. If you are writing a play and can't physically put a big event onstage-such as a forest fire-make the onstage impact of the event more interesting than the event itself. To explore dramatic turning points and where they come from, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try "As the World Turns," "Inciting Event," "Turning Points," and "Crisis Decision."
WEAK THROUGHLINE
Problem. The story's arc of action is unclear, or difficult to follow, or just doesn't exist. We are told that things are different now, but we haven't experienced the change for ourselves. We see only the results and not the process. In some cases, important steps in the chain of events are missing. In other cases, there are steps that break away from the chain and lead nowhere. Sometimes we spend too long on one step of the story while the conflict grows stale. Other times we leap to a new step so abruptly that we don't know how we got there. Sudden surprises can be powerful storytelling tools, but too many leaps or illogical jumps can leave us watching the action from afar.
Solution. Look at the dramatic journey of the main character as a big step-by-step transition, from a starting point-such as social isolationto a final destination-such as social connection. Make sure that the right steps are in place for this big transition and that the character's journey is one which is gradually but constantly moving forward. To map out your throughline, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try "Step by Step." To strengthen the throughline, try any stage 2 exercise in the section "Building Your Story," particularly "What Happens Next?," "Pointing and Planting," "Before and After," and "'Twelve-Word Solution." To get a clearer global view of the throughline, try "Ready, Aim, Focus."
A CRISIS THAT ISN'T
Problem. The crisis decision near the end of the story is, from the main character's perspective, too easy, or, from the audi
ence's perspective, too predictable. In some cases, there is no crisis decision.
Solution. The crisis decision is the most difficult and significant decision of the story. To make the decision worthy of its name, force your main character to choose not between good and evil, but rather between the best of two goods that cannot coexist or the least of two evils. This choice will be both difficult and unpredictable if each option means that something important will be gained and something important will be lost. To explore your main character's choices at the peak of dramatic action, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try "Crisis Decision."
NOT CLEAR WHAT HAPPENED IN THE STORY
Problem. The story doesn't know what it wants to be about. Perhaps there are two big, equally important events competing with each other and canceling each other out. Or there is simply no main event to hold things together. The story lacks focus.
Solution. Regardless of its size, scope, and complexity, think of your story as one main event. Then let all of the dramatic elements-from the cast of characters to the sequence of scenes-work together to make this main event happen. If there are two important subjects to address, make one more important than the other. Or find a third subject that encompasses the two. Know what your story is about and stick to it. To clarify your story's main event, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try any of the stage 3 exercises, such as "Main Event," Your Story as a Dog," The Incredible Shrinking Story," "What's in a Name?," The Forest of Your Story," and "Ready, Aim, Focus."
A THEME THAT ISN'T
Problem. Above and beyond the plot of the story, there is no theme, or controlling idea, that holds the dramatic experience together. Or the theme is so small or so subtle that it is undetectable. The story seems to "stop" rather than "end," and the stopping point feels arbitrary.
Solution. Somewhere between drafts, take the time to think outside the plot and clarify what your story is really about. As an exercise, identify the subject in one or two words. Then, in a single thematic statement, express your point of view about that subject. This statement represents a truth that will be demonstrated by the story but never explained during it. Your highlevel decisions about subject and theme can provide important guidelines as you enter the revision process. To explore these high-level elements, go to the section "Building Your Story" and try "What's the Big Idea?" and "The Forest of Your Story."
WAY TOO MANY WORDS
Problem. The writer has forgotten the power of the emotional life that actors will later bring to the script, or overlooked opportunities to use dramatic action, subtext, visual imagery, and physical life to show, not tell, the story. As a result, the script is bogged down in words. It may have unnecessary scenes, too many beats of action within some scenes, too many lines of dialogue within some beats, unnecessary repetitions, unnecessary explanations, or speeches that belabor the point.
Solution. Less is more. When you're ready to edit a completed draft, challenge every scene, every beat, and every line. Focus on boiling down the words to what is absolutely essential, and be sure that a scene's length is justified by its content. For best results, do this cutting in stages rather than all at once. You can reduce a heap of wordage by reviewing the script in rounds and making precise cuts here and there each time. To rework dialogue, go to the section "Causing a Scene" and try "Talking and Listening," "Unspeakable Truths," and "The Bones of the Lines." To convert wordage into imagery and other physical life, try "Seeing the Scene," "Where in the World Are We?," In the Realm of the Senses," and "The Voice of the Setting." To analyze wordage from a beat perspective, try "Thinking in Beats."
Following are definitions of key terms used in this guide. While you may already be familiar with many of these terms, they are included here because their definitions highlight many of the dramatic principles underlying guide exercises.
act. A major unit of dramatic action that is typically composed of scenes and ends with a significant change, or reversal, in the dramatic journey. Most full-length plays today are structured in two acts; most full-length screenplays are structured in three acts.
adjustment. The attitude or emotion that a character manifests at any given time. The adjustment may be true (this is how the character really feels) or affected (this is how the character wishes to appear). At the scenic level, adjustments often change from beat to beat as characters make discoveries that shift them closer to, or further from, their scenic objective.
antagonist. One who opposes a main character's efforts to pursue a goal.
arc of action. The behavioral and emotional transition of a character during a specific period of time. A character typically has an arc within each scene as well as an arc that spans the course of the whole story.
backstory. Anything that happened among the characters in the past and will somehow influence them in the present. In the first scene, the backstory includes any relevant event that occurred before the story begins; in later scenes, the backstory expands to include whatever has previously occurred onstage or offstage.
beat. i. The smallest unit of dramatic action. A scene is made up of beats; each centers on one topic, one behavior, or one emotion. Beats bring variety to the dramatic action of a scene and determine its structure and rhythm. 2. A pause in dialogue for dramatic effect. This guide uses only definition i.
beat action or objective. The character need that drives one beat of a scene. Beat actions often are strategies or tactics that a character tries in order to achieve a scenic objective.
beat change. A shift in the dramatic action caused by a change of topic, behavior, or emotion, or by the entrance or exit of an important character.
behavioral objective. A character's need to get a certain response from another character. Behavioral objectives can be found at the beat, scene, and story levels, and boil down to four basic categories: to make another character feel good, to make another character feel bad, to find out something important, or to convince another character of something important.
character. A metaphor for a human being composed of a unique mix of physical, psychological, and sociological traits that are revealed and changed through dramatic action. This guide builds on the principle that character is the root function of scene and story: it is usually character, not plot, that drives a dramatic journey.
Character i. The main character of a scene: the one who drives most of the dramatic action and causes the scene to happen. Different characters may play this role from scene to scene. Character i is also often, but not always, the main character of the story.
Character 2. The second most important character in a scene. Different characters may play this role from scene to scene.
climax. The peak of action within a beat, scene, or story. At the beat level, the climax is usually a single line of dialogue or physical action; at the scene level, the climax may include one or more beats of action; at the story level, the climax may include one or more scenes.
conflict. Anything that makes a character objective difficult to achieve. Such obstacles may arise from the character's inner world, from other characters with incompatible needs, or from the current situation in the world of the story. The term conflict is often equated incorrectly with argument; however, argument is only one form of conflict. Also referred to as obstacle or problem.
crisis decision. The most difficult decision in the story. Traditionally, the crisis decision is made by the main character, reflects a choice between incompatible goods or the lesser of two evils, and triggers the story's climax and resolution.
deus ex machina. A solution to a problem which arises from coincidence or other external forces rather than from the character actions and story events that led up to it. The term refers to a device in ancient Greek theater where gods would arrive conveniently in chariots at the end of a play to solve everyone's problems.
dialogue. The words that characters speak as they talk and listen to each other in order to satisfy needs, address problems, or express ideas and em
otions. Most dialogue has the feel of everyday conversation, but is actually a heightened version of it. The function of dialogue is to reveal character and advance the story.
dramatic action. Character interaction or other activity shaped and driven at its most fundamental level by three elements: objective, obstacle, and motivation.
dramatic journey. The main character's pursuit of an important but difficult goal and the effects of this pursuit on the character and the world of the story. Also known as the quest.
emotional life. The feelings of the character at any given time. Emotional life is both a cause and effect of dramatic action, and often minimizes the need for dialogue.
event. An important happening, positive or negative, in the world of the story; for example, something is achieved or not achieved, discovered or not discovered. Dramatic events often center on a beginning, end, or change of some kind.
exposition. Explanation or description of that which cannot be observed here and now, such as past or offstage events in the world of the story, or the inner life of a character. Though often viewed as negative, exposition can be a vital and powerful part of dramatic storytelling when used judiciously to expose specific character traits, ideas, and facts.
feather duster. An expositional scene in which characters explain things to each other, often at length, only for the sake of the audience. The term refers to old-fashioned dramas that would begin with servants dusting the room and gossiping about their employers so that the author could "set up" the story.
foil. A character who exists in a scene only to ask just the right questions and lend an eager ear so that another character can ramble on about all of the things that the author wants him or her to say for the sake of the audience.