Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453

by Roger Crowley

  destruction of Galata 1

  in Galata 1

  enslaved in the Morea 1

  building techniques 1

  soldiers 1

  refugees 1

  and Italians 1

  Gregory Mammas, patriarch of Constantinople 1, 2, 3

  Gregory VII, Pope 1

  Grezi, Troilo de 1

  Grioni, Zacaria 1

  Gunner Verban District, Istanbul 1

  gunners, corps of 1

  gunpowder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

  guns

  first mention of (1313) 1

  first pictorial representation (1326) 1

  workshops 1

  drawbacks of early guns 1

  Mehmet experiments with casting large guns 1

  Gurani, Ulema Ahmet 1, 2, 3

  Guro 1

  Hadith 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Hafiz, Hazret 1

  Halil Pasha, Chief Vizier 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Mehmet confirmed as sultan under his guidance 6

  episode of the Persian missionary 1

  engineers Mehmet’s deposition 1

  and Murat’s death 1

  Mehmet restores him as chief vizier 1

  and Prince Orhan 1, 2

  and building of Rumeli Hasari 1, 2

  and fear of Christian unity 1

  frightened into supporting Mehmet’s project 1

  taunted by opponents 1

  favours peace 1, 2

  location in the final battle 1

  unsuccessful seaborne landing 1

  hanged at Edirne 1

  Hamza Pasha 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  handguns 1, 2

  Hannibal 1

  harem system 1

  Harff, Arnold von 1

  Hasan of Ulubat 1, 2

  Helen, mother of Constantine I 1

  Helena, mother of Constantine XI 1, 2

  Heraclius, twenty-eighth Emperor of Byzantium 1, 2, 3

  Hexamilion, Constantinople 1, 2, 3

  Hippodrome, Constantinople 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

  Hizir Pasha, Kara 1

  Hodegetria 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Holy Apostles, ruined church of the,

  Constantinople 1, 2, 3, 4

  Homer 1, 2, 3

  Horaia Gate 1

  Hormisdas, ruined palace of 1

  horsetail banners 1, 2, 3, 4

  House of Palaiologos 1, 2, 3, 4

  House of Truce 1

  Humbert of Mourmoutiers 1

  Hungarian crusader army 1, 2

  Hungarians 1, 2, 3, 4

  Hungary 1, 2

  Huns 1, 2

  Hunyadi, John 1, 2, 3, 4

  Ibn Battutah 1, 2

  Ibn Khaldun 1, 2

  Igor the Russian, Prince 1

  imams 1, 2

  Imbros 1

  imperial foot-guards 1

  infantry

  confrontation with Genoese merchantmen 1, 2

  Janissary 1

  heavy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  given their battle orders 1

  Innocent III, Pope 1

  iron 1, 2

  irregulars (Ottoman) 1, 2

  Isfahan 1

  Ishak Pasha 1, 2, 3

  Isidore of Kiev, Cardinal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  Islam

  struggle with Christianity 1, 2

  Muhammad unites feuding tribes under Islam 1

  Muhammad invites Heraclius to embrace it 1

  first major setback to the Muslim cause 1, 2

  humankind expected to accept Islam or submit to Muslim rule 1

  consequences of failure to take Constantinople in 717 1

  and Russian Orthodoxy 1

  reopens holy war against its Christian foes 1

  green flag of 1

  laws requiring mercy to conquered peoples 1

  Christian converts 1

  symbol of triumph over Christianity 1

  and rebuilding of Constantinople 1

  huge renewal of anti-Islamic sentiment 1

  news of Constantinople’s fall greeted with joy 1

  spreads into Europe 1

  advance halted at the gates of Vienna (1683) 1

  see also crusades

  Ismail 1, 2

  Isthmus of Corinth 1, 2

  Italian fleet 1

  Italian peninsula 1

  Italians

  Mehmet’s advisers 1

  seafarers 1

  survivors of the siege 1, 2

  and Greeks 1

  see also Genoese; Venetians

  Italy

  John VIII tours (1420s) 1

  Muslim invasion of (1481) 1

  Izmir (Smyrna) 1

  Izmit 1

  Iznik 1

  Janissaries 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  Christian military slaves 7

  strengthened by Murat I 1

  Halil instigates a revolt 1

  revolt of 1451 54, 1, 3

  restructuring of the regiment 1

  archers 1

  infantry 1

  Bektashi order 1

  work on the ramparts 1

  sent to fight Genoese intruders 1

  potential revolt 1

  and Baltaoglu 1

  the attack on Constantinople 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Mehmet’s bodyguard 1, 2

  march into the city 1

  at St Sophia 1

  and Mehmet’s triumphant entry into

  Constantinople 1

  Jason and the Argonauts 1

  javelin-men 1

  javelins 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Jericho 1

  Jerusalem 1, 2, 3

  Jewish quarter, Constantinople 1

  Jews 1, 2

  jihad 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  John Cantacuzenos, Emperor 1

  John Komnenos, Emperor 1

  John Palaeologi 1

  John the Baptist 1

  John V 1

  John VI Cantacuzenos, Emperor 1

  John VIII, Emperor (brother of Constantine XI) 1, 2

  Justinian, Emperor 1, 2, 3

  Justinian, equestrian statue of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

  Kaffa 1, 2, 241

  Kallinikos (developer of Greek fire) 1

  Kara Bey 1

  Karaja Pasha 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Kariman, Bey of 1, 2, 3

  Kasimpasha see Valley of the Springs

  Kastamonu 1

  Kemach, Anatolia 1

  Kiev 1, 2

  Knolles, Richard: The General History of the Turks 1

  Komnenos wall 1

  Konya 1

  Koran, the 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

  Kosovo, first Battle of (1389) 1

  Kosovo, second Battle of (1448) 1

  Krakatoa eruption (1883) 1

  Kritovoulos of Imbros 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

  Krum, Khan 1

  Kuwae volcanic eruption (1453) 1

  Ladislas, King of Hungary 1, 2

  Lake Garda 1, 2

  lancers 1

  landwall see Theodosius wall

  Languschi, Giacomo de 1

  Lawrence, St 1

  Lecanella, Francesco 1, 2

  Lemnos 1, 2

  Leo II, Emperor 1, 2

  Leonard of Chios, archbishop of Lesbos 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25

  Leonardo da Vinci 1

  Leontari, Manuel Bryennius 1

  Lepanto 1

  Lesbos 1, 2

  Levant 1

  Lithgow, Edward 1

  Little Ahmet 1, 2

  Loire River 1

  Lomellino, Angelo 1, 2, 3, 4

  see also Galata, Podesta of

  longboats 1

  longbows 1, 2, 3

  Longo, Alviso 1

  Luke the Evangelist, St 1

  Luther, Martin 1

  Lycus River 1, 2

  Lycus valley 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

  Lysippos 1

  Maffei, Celso 1

  Mahmut Pasha 1, 2
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  Maltepe 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Mamluks 1, 2, 3, 4

  Manisa 1

  mantlets (wooden hurdles) 1

  Mantua 1

  Manuel II, Emperor 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Manzikert, Battle of (1071) 1, 2

  Marangon, Zuan 1

  Maria Palaeologos 1

  Mark Eugenicus, St 1

  Marlowe, Christopher: Tamberlaine 1

  Marmara walls 1, 2, 3

  Maslama, General 1, 2

  Masts, Battle of the (655) 1

  Mecca 1

  medieval vassalage 1

  Medina 1

  Mediterranean Sea 1

  Mehmet II, Sultan

  birth 1

  background 1

  education 1, 2

  deaths of other heirs to the throne 1

  personality 1, 2

  confirmed as sultan, aged 1 2

  episode with Persian missionary 1

  influences on 1

  early plans for assault on Constantinople 1

  humiliating rebuff 1

  second Battle of Kosovo (1448) 1

  appearance 1, 2, 3

  ambition 1

  murder of Little Ahmet 1

  fratricide law 1, 2

  makes guarantees of peace 1

  crushes revolt by Bey of Karaman 1

  building of Rumeli Hisari 1

  makes an example of the Venetians 1

  dark obsessive days gleaning intelligence 1

  makes the case for war (January 1453) 1

  Orban’s gun 1, 2

  traditional call to arms (1453) 1

  sets out from Edirne (23 March 1453) 1

  his army reaches Constantinople (1453) 1

  his ceremonial tent 1

  Maltepe headquarters 1

  organisation of his forces 1

  traditional invitation to surrender 1

  promises plunder while fulfilling the will of God 1

  attritional and impatient strategy 1

  intensifies bombardment after setback 1

  begins to deploy the fleet for the first time 1

  logistic skill 1

  objectives for his new fleet 1

  and failed confrontation with Genoese mer

  chantmen 1, 2, 3, 4

  treatment of Baltaoglu 1

  reaction to the peace proposal 1, 2

  incessant in his pursuit of the city 1

  successful plan to bypass the boom 1

  and impalement of Italian sailors 1

  concentrates his fire on the St Romanus Gate 1, 2

  mining 1, 2, 3

  glowing light interpreted as propitious 1

  final attempt to persuade Constantine to surrender peacefully 1

  council of war 1

  prepares for a supreme effort 1

  gives his final orders 1, 2

  promises three days of plunder 1, 2, 3

  the attack 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  collapse of the defence 1

  triumphant entry into Constantinople 1, 2

  inspects the buildings 1

  claims to be defender of the Faith and of the holy places 1

  death 1, 2

  mausoleum 1

  and the Justinian statue 1

  Mehmet III, Sultan 1, 2

  Mehmet Pasha 1

  Melissenos, Makarios 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  merchantmen 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

  Mese, Constantinople 1

  Mesembria 1

  Mesoteichion, Constantinople 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

  Michael the Janissary 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  Michael the Syrian 1

  Milan, Duke of 1

  Milion, Constantinople 1

  Milvian Bridge, Battle of (312 AD) 1

  miniatures 1

  mining 1, 2, 3, 4

  Minotto (the Venetian bailey) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  Mistra, Peloponnese 1, 2, 3

  Modon 1

  Moldavia 1, 2

  Monemvasia 1

  Mongolia 1

  Mongols 1, 2, 3

  monograms 1

  Morea see Peloponnese

  Mount Olympus 1

  Muawiyyah, Caliph 1, 2

  Muhammad, Prophet 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

  unifies feuding tribes around the message of Islam 7

  ultimatum to Heraclius 1

  appearance after other prophets 1

  his promise regarding Constantinople 1, 2

  companions of 1

  mullahs, key role of 1

  Murat (a Janissary) 1

  Murat I, Sultan 1, 2

  Murat II, Sultan 1, 2, 3, 4

  besieges Constantinople (1422) 5, 6, 7, 8

  Thessaloniki (1430) 1

  birth of Mehmet (1432) 1

  death of Ali and his sons 1

  abdication 1

  and the Bey of Kariman 1, 2

  returns to Edirne to take control again 1

  final years spent in Edirne 1

  and Constantine XI 1

  creates infrastructure for an artillery force 1

  breaches Hexamilion (1446) 1

  death (1451) 1

  musketeers 1, 2

  Muslim armies

  agile, resourceful and hardy 1

  ambushed and destroyed (678) 1

  tricked by Leo II 1

  defeated in the Loire Valley (732) 1

  Muslim navies

  ships built in Egypt and Palestine 1

  Cyprus taken in 648 1

  Battle of the Masts (655) 1

  base at Cyzicus 1

  Christians 1, 2

  fleet destroyed by Byzantines using Greek fire 1

  Mustapha (standard-bearer of the Anatolian army) 1

  Naples 1

  National Gallery, London 1

  Negroponte 1, 2

  Nestor-Iskander 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

  Nicaea, Anatolia (later Iznik) 1, 2

  Nicene Creed 1, 2

  Nicephorus Palaiologos 1

  Nicephorus Phocas, Emperor 1, 2

  Nicholas I, Pope 1

  Nicholas V, Pope 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

  Nicomedia, fall of (1337) 1

  Nile delta 1

  Notaras, Grand Duke Lucas 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

  Novo Brdo, Serbia 1

  Odo de Deuil 1

  Old Royal Palace 1

  Omar Bey 1

  Orban (Hungarian cannon founder) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

  Orhan, Prince, Ottoman pretender 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

  Orhan, son of Osman 1, 2, 3, 4

  Orthodox Church

  dispute with the papacy 1, 2

  start of the Great Schism 1

  compared with Western tradition 1

  rift over the Nicene Creed 1

  and potential unity with the Church of Rome 1

  Council of Florence (1438 ) 1

  and celebration of union at St Sophia 1

  importance of prayer to survival of the city 1

  Crete a bastion of the Church 1

  Oruch 1

  Osman 1

  his dream of Constantinople 1

  his domain 1

  first victory over the Byzantines 1

  tomb of 1

  Otranto 1, 2

  Ottoman army

  creation of 1

  Christians 1, 2

  defeats the Serbs (1371) 1

  victory at Varna (1444) 1, 2

  enslaves Greeks in the Morea (1146) 1

  Tursun Bey on 1

  the call to arms 1, 2

  command structure 1

  advances towards Constantinople (1453) 1, 2

  Greek villages taken in its path 1

  reaches Constantinople (April 1453) 1

  encampment 1

  clothing and equipment 1

  size at the siege 1

  casualties from close-range fighting 1

  military band 1, 2

  retreat to camp 1

  Mehmet unable to command the love of his army 1

  low morale
1, 2

  essential disciplines of Ottoman warfare 1

  statistics 1

  Zaganos prepares the army for battle 1

  commitment to the final attack 1

  Mehmet promises three days of plunder 1, 2

  final work in the camp 1, 2