by Scott Leslie
ECHO PARAKEET
Decimated by many of the same factors as the Mauritius kestrel and the pink pigeon, at one point the echo parakeet was the rarest parrot in the world and the last native parrot species surviving on any of the islands in the tropical Indian Ocean. By the 1980s, only about 20 remained. Its cousins on Réunion, Rodrigues, and the Seychelles had all gone extinct.
Fortunately for this medium-sized emerald green–and blue-tinged parakeet, wildlife conservationists in Mauritius had practice snatching birds from the edge of extinction. Successes with the kestrel and the pink pigeon proved it could be done. Their experience would be put to the test again.
Since they shared the same forest habitat, much of what was learned during the recovery efforts for the other two birds also applied to the parakeet. However, in addition to suffering from deforestation and predation by introduced species such as rats and monkeys, the echo parakeet was also being starved into extinction. Introduced weed species, such as the guava plant and starfruit, had a severe impact on the parakeet. These exotic plants, which quickly dominate an ecosystem once they’re established, choked out the saplings of native tree species, preventing the forest from regenerating properly. Over time, the trees the echo parakeet depended on for sustenance began to disappear. It wasn’t possible for the bird to simply switch to eating the weeds, since they didn’t fruit during its breeding season, when an ample supply of food is critical for feeding hungry nestlings. Virtually no chicks were fledged between the 1970s and the mid-1980s, when the population had reached rock bottom.
Though there had been an earlier effort to save the species, an effective recovery program for the echo parakeet wasn’t begun until 1987. With help from the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, the World Parrot Trust, and Wildlife Preservation Canada, Carl Jones and the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation would again play a lead role. The list of what they’ve done to save the parakeet from extinction is long: control of introduced rats, pigs, monkeys, and deer; control of introduced ring-necked parakeets and Indian myna birds that competed with the echo parakeet; removal of weeds and the planting of native trees; the provision of supplemental feeding stations; the placement of artificial nesting boxes; enhancing breeding success by leaving one nestling in each of the wild nests to be brooded by its parents while removing the other to be captive fed and reared before being released back into the wild (since there was a food shortage in the wild, it was easier for the parents to find enough food for only one chick); regular inspection of nests, and rescuing any chicks that were underweight or sick; and establishing the 68-square-kilometre Black River Gorges National Park in 1993 (which also contains the habitat of the kestrel and pigeon).
The echo parakeet’s recovery has been a resounding success. In 2007, it became the third Mauritius bird (after the kestrel and the pink pigeon) to be downlisted on the IUCN Red List from critically endangered to endangered. There are now about 400 of them in the wild.
Saving endangered species and the rest of the earth’s living treasures is within our grasp.
Here’s some proof: if you added together the populations of the Mauritius kestrel, the pink pigeon, and the echo parakeet just a few decades ago, you would have come up a number of less than 35. Thirty-five. Total. Tally them up now and you’d be closing in on 2,000 individuals, thus proving Margaret Mead’s famous dictum, “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it’s the only thing that ever has.”
A NOTE ON THE IUCN (INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE)
There is mention throughout the book of this Switzerland-based international organization and its Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), according to its website, is the “the world’s oldest and largest global environmental network—a democratic membership union with more than 1,000 government and NGO member organizations, and almost 11,000 volunteer scientists in more than 160 countries.” Its Red List of Threatened Species is the de facto global benchmark for the evaluation and assessment of the conservation status of the planet’s animals and plants.
The most relevant Red List category for this book is Critically Endangered. The IUCN says animals and plants in this category are “considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.” Since all species in this book currently have minuscule populations, it isn’t surprising that most of them are considered critically endangered. The other important Red List category for us is Extinct in the Wild. In fact, there are species in the book that are no longer found anywhere in the wild after exhaustive searches of their traditional ranges; organisms that, according to the IUCN’s criteria, are known only “to survive in cultivation, in captivity, or as a naturalized population well outside its past range.” This isn’t to say that some might not be returned to the wild in the future. The good news is that species can and sometimes do get downlisted to a less dangerous category, such as Endangered or Vulnerable, like the birds on Mauritius did.
A NOTE ON POPULATIONS
The population stated for each species is the best estimate or census available at the time of writing; please bear in mind that such small populations can quickly change. Unless otherwise indicated, these numbers reflect the population in the wild.
SPECIES FEATURED IN THIS BOOK
Alabama sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus suttkusi)
Population: 2
Alagoas curassow (Mitu mitu)
Population: 100 in captivity
Amsterdam albatross (Diomedia amsterdamensis)
Population: under 100 breeding birds
Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis)
Population: under 40
Anjouan scops owl (Otus capnodes)
Population: 50 or fewer breeding pairs
Arakan forest turtle (Heosemys depressa)
Population: 5
Archey’s frog (Leiopelma archeyi)
Population: possibly under 100
Armoured mistfrog (Litoria lorica)
Population: possibly under 100
Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus)
Population: 70 to 100
Attwater’s prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri)
Population: 75 to 90
Bachman’s warbler (Vermivora bachmanii)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Baiji (Yangtze) dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi)
Population: 24 or fewer
Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)
Population: from presumed extinct to about 1,000 today
Black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae)
Population: under 100
Blue iguana (Cyclura lewisi)
Population: from 5 to 250 today
Burmese roofed turtle (Batagur trivittata)
Population: 5 to 7 breeding females
Cahow (Bermuda petrel) (Pterodroma cahow)
Population: from under 50 to over 200 today
California condor (Gymongyps californius)
Population: from 22 to about 200 today
Campbell Island teal (Anas nesiotis)
Population: between 48 and 100
Carrizal seedeater (Amaurospiza carrizalensis)
Population: under 50
Cat Ba langur (Trachypithecus poliocephalus)
Population: 65
Catalina mahogany (Cercocarpus traskiae)
Population: 7
Chatham Island black robin (Petroica traverse)
Population: from 5 (including just 1 breeding female) to about 250 today
Chinese crested tern (Thalasseus bernsteini)
Population: under 50
Chinese giant paddlefish (Psephurus gladius)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Crested ibis (Nipponia nippon)
Population: from 7 to 997 today
Devils Hole pupfish
(Cypronidon diabolis)
Population: under 100
Eastern North Pacific right whale (Eubalaena japonica)
Population: 28
Echo parakeet (Psittacula eques)
Population: from 20 to about 400 today
El lobo (Mexican wolf) (Canis lupus baileyi)
Population: 50
Enigmatic owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles savesi)
Population: under 50
Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Fabulous green sphinx of Kauai (Tinostoma smaragditis)
Population: under 100
Floreana mockingbird (Nesomimus trifasciatus)
Population: possibly 100 or fewer
Franklin’s bumblebee (Bombus franklini)
Population: under 100
Ganges river shark (Glyphis gangeticus)
Population: under 100
Gilbert’s potoroo (Potorous gilbertii)
Population: under 100
Greater bamboo lemur (Prolemur simus)
Population: probably under 100
Guam rail ko’ko’ (Gallirallus owstoni)
Population: approximately 200, none self-sustaining over the long term in the wild
Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus)
Population: 20
Hawaiian crow (‘alala) (Corvus hawaiiensis)
Population: 77 in captivity
He-cabbage tree (Pladaroxylon leucadendon)
Population: under 50
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)
Population: from under 100 to about 200 today
Iranian Gorgan mountain salamander (Paradactylodon gorganensis)
Population: under 100
Iriomote cat (Prionailurus iriomotensis)
Population: under 100
Irrawaddy river shark (Glyphis siamensis)
Population: under 100
Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)
Population: 50 to 60
Kakapo (Strigops habroptila)
Population: from 65 to 120 today
La Gomera giant lizard (Galliotia bravoana)
Population: 90
Lord Howe Island giant stick insect (Dryococelus australis)
Population: under 20
Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata)
Population: 20 to 25
Mangrove finch (Camarhynchus heliobates)
Population: under 100
Mariana crow (Corvus kubaryi)
Population: 100 or under
Maui’s dolphin (Cephalorynchus hectori maui)
Population: possibly under 100
Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus)
Population in 1974: from 4 to about 1,000 today
Milu (Père David’s deer) (Elaphurus davidianus)
Population: over 2,000 in captivity
Miss Waldron’s red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus badius waldrone)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Molokai thrush (Myadestes lanaiensis rutha)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Mountain bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros isaaci)
Population: under 50
Nene (Hawaiian goose) (Branta sandvichensis)
Population: from 30 to over 1,500
Niceforo’s wren (Thryothorus nicefori)
Population: 77
Norfolk Island Phreatia orchid (Phreatia limenophylax)
Population: 5
Northern hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus krefftii)
Population: from 35 to over 130 today
Northern river shark (Glyphis garricki)
Population: under 100
Northern sportive lemur (Lepilemur septentrionalis)
Population: probably under 100
Northern white rhinoceros (Ceratothenium simum cottoni)
Population: 7 in captivity
Oahu creeper (Paroreomyza maculate)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Philippines crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis)
Population: under 100
Phillip Island wheatgrass (Elymus multiflorus kingianus)
Population: under 50
Pink-headed duck (Rhondonessa caryophyllacea)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
Pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri)
Population: from 10 to about 400 today
Pinta Island Galapagos giant tortoise (Geochelone abingdoni)
Population: 1
Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus)
Population: from extinct in the wild to over 300 today
Puerto Rican amazon (Amazona vittata)
Population: approximately 50 breeding birds
Rabb’s fringe-limbed tree frog (Ecnomiohyla rabborum)
Population: several males and a single female in captivity
St. Helena ebony (Trochetiopsis ebenus)
Population: 2 mature trees
São Tomé fiscal (Lanius newtoni)
Population: under 50
São Tomé grosbeak (Neospiza concolor)
Population: under 50
Scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah)
Population: 1,500 in captivity
Seychelles magpie robin (Copsychus sechellarum)
Population: from 12 to about 200 today
Seychelles sheath-tailed bat (Coleura seychellensis)
Population: 60
She-cabbage tree (Lachanodes arborea)
Population: under 10
Short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus)
Population: from presumed extinct to nearly 3,000 today
Sicilian fir (Abies nebrodensis)
Population: 30
Slender-billed curlew (Numenius tenuirostris)
Population: unknown, possibly extinct
South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis)
Population: 20 or under
Spix’s macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii)
Population: between 70 and 80 in captivity
Sulu hornbill (Anthracoceros montani)
Population: under 40
Tahiti monarch (Pomarea nigra)
Population: 40 to 45
Thermal water lily (Nymphaea thermarum)
Population: over 50 in cultivation
Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis)
Population: from 30 to about 300 today
Virginia round-leaf birch (Betula uber)
Population: 8
White-collared kite (Leptodon forbesi)
Population: 50 or fewer breeding pairs
Whooping crane (Grus americanus)
Population: from 21 to about 400 today
Wisent (European bison) (Bison bonasus)
Population: from 9 to over 800 today
Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis)
Population: under 100
Wyoming toad (Bufo baxteri)
Population: thousands in captivity
Yangtze giant softshell turtle (Rafetus swinhoei)
Population: 1 in the wild, 3 in captivity
Yunnan box turtle (Cuora yunnanensis)
Population: unknown, but thought to be under 50
PART ONE
TROUBLE WITH THE NUMBERS: UNDER 100
We usually think of populations of species as being in the billions (humans), millions (white-tailed deer), or thousands (American black bears). But under a hundred? This is the realm of the rarest living things. They are all critically endangered. With such small numbers, from 1 to 99, it wouldn’t take much—a disease, a bad storm, a little poaching, or habitat destruction, say—for any of them to disappear completely. In fact, a few of these species may be already gone, having not been seen in years, sometimes decades. But the odd one might still hang on, so they haven’t been declared extinct under the IUCN’s criteria that “there is no reasonable doubt that its last individual has died.”
Besides their vanishingly small populations, almost all of these animals and plants have another thing in common: th
eir survival is being championed by people (sometimes many, sometimes a few) who want to see them flourish once again.
OUR CLOSEST KIN: MAMMALS
As a rule, most mammal species are small, shy, nocturnal, and rarely seen. But not all. Some, like the big cats, the great whales, rhinos, and antelopes are among the most spectacular living things inhabiting the planet with us, while our primate cousins share virtually our entire genetic code. As a mammal species barely 100,000 years old, we are still wet-behind-the-ears newcomers, junior players to practically all others on the evolutionary stage.
Unfortunately, we happen to be, by far, the most abundant species of mammal ever to exist on the face of the earth. And it’s precisely owing to this success that many of our fellow warm-blooded, live-bearing, young-suckling mammalian relatives are hurting so badly. Twenty percent, or 1,134, of all wild mammal species are in danger of extinction worldwide according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Essentially, we are crowding them off the planet as we make room for an additional 80 million people, every year.
HAINAN GIBBON
The primates have flourished since the first shrew-like ancestor climbed into a tree eons ago and never left. There are now more than 600 species. The bad news is that over 300, or more than half them, are at risk of extinction.
Gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, gibbons, and humans are all members of the Hominoid super-family, commonly referred to as the apes. How closely related are we? Humans’ and chimpanzees’ DNA—the blueprint of life—is more than 98 percent identical. Everything that sets us apart from our chimp cousins—hairlessness, upright walking on two legs, complex language, abstract thought, and so on—can be accounted for by a mere 2 percent difference in our genes. To put this into perspective, that’s less than the genetic difference between the white-eyed and Philadelphia vireos, two very closely related songbirds of eastern North American forests.
Even the DNA of the gibbons, our most distant cousins among the apes, is about 95 percent identical to ours. In fact, the ancient Chinese (whose country was the stronghold of gibbons before most were wiped out due to habitat loss) referred to gibbons as the “gentlemen” of the forest, and Taoists believed they lived for 1,000 years and could turn into humans.