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Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men

Page 37

by Caroline Criado Perez


  78 Marts and Keitt (2004)

  79 Parekh, A., Sanhai, W., Marts, S. and Uhl, K. (2007), ‘Advancing women’s health via FDA Critical Path Initiative’, Drug Discovery Today: Technologies, 4:2

  80 http://www.nature.com/news/infections-reveal-inequality-between-the-sexes-1.20131?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews

  81 Yoon et al. (2014)

  82 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/colon.html#tabs-2

  83 Devries, Michaela C. (2016), ‘Sex-based differences in endurance exercise muscle metabolism: impact on exercise and nutritional strategies to optimize health and performance in women’, Experimental Physiology, 101:2, 243–9

  84 Schiebinger (2014)

  85 Zusterzeel, R. et al. (2014), ‘Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy in Women: US Food and Drug Administration Meta-analysis of Patient-Level Data’, JAMA Internal Medicine, 174:8, 1340–8

  86 Woodruff, Teresa K. (2014), ‘Sex, equity, and science’, PNAS, 111:14, 5,063–4

  87 Nowak, Bernd et al. (2010), ‘Do gender differences exist in pacemaker implantation?–results of an obligatory external quality control program’, Europace, 12, 210–15

  88 http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/the-worlds-first-true-artificial-heart-now-beats-inside-a-75-year-old-patient-180948280/?no-ist

  89 http://www.syncardia.com/medical-professionals/two-sizes-70cc-50cc.html

  90 Sardeli, Amanda Veiga and Chacon-Mikahil, Mara Patricia T. (2016), ‘Exercise-Induced Increase as a Risk Factor for Central Arterial Stiffness’, Journal of Archives in Military Medicine; http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/110/18/2858; http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/728571; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22267567

  91 Collier, Scott R. (2008), ‘Sex Differences in the Effects of Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise on Blood Pressure and Arterial Stiffness’, Gender Medicine, 5:2

  92 Ibid.

  93 Devries (2016)

  94 Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2008), ‘Sex Differences in Exercise Metabolism and the Role of 17-Beta Estradiol’, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40:4, 648–54

  95 Dick, R. W. (2009), ‘Is there a gender difference in concussion incidence and outcomes?’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43, Suppl. I, i46–i50, DOI:10.1136/bjsm.2009.058172

  96 https://thinkprogress.org/scientists-avoid-studying-womens-bodies-because-they-get-periods-3fe9d6c39268/)

  97 Hunter, Sandra K. (2016), ‘Sex differences in fatigability of dynamic contractions’, Experimental Physiology, 101:2, 250–5

  98 Jutte, Lisa S., Hawkins, Jeremy, Miller, Kevin C., Long, Blaine C. and Knight, Kenneth L. (2012), ‘Skinfold Thickness at 8 Common Cryotherapy Sites in Various Athletic Populations’, Journal of Athletic Training, 47:2, 170–7

  99 Costello, Joseph T., Bieuzen, Francois and Bleakley, Chris M. (2014), ‘Where are all the female participants in Sports and Exercise Medicine research?’, European Journal of Sport Science, 14:8, 847–51; https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/scicurious/women-sports-are-often-underrepresented-science

  100 Faulkner, S. H., Jackson, S., Fatania, G. and Leicht, C. A. (2017), ‘The effect of passive heating on heat shock protein 70 and interleukin-6: A possible treatment tool for metabolic diseases?’, Temperature, 4, 1–13

  101 https://theconversation.com/a-hot-bath-has-benefits-similar-to-exercise-74600; http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/hot-bath-may-have-similar-benefits-as-exercise_us_58d90aa8e4b03692bea7a930

  102 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands); http://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/gender-matters-heart-disease-risk-in-women; Dallongeville, J. et al. (2010), ‘Gender differences in the implementation of cardiovascular prevention measures after an acute coronary event’, Heart, 96, 1744–9

  103 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  104 https://theconversation.com/medicines-gender-revolution-how-women-stopped-being-treated-as-small-men-77171

  105 https://orwh.od.nih.gov/clinical/women-and-minorities/

  106 https://orwh.od.nih.gov/sites/orwh/files/docs/NOT-OD-15–102_Guidance.pdf

  107 Yoon et al. (2014)

  108 Rees, Teresa (2011), ‘The Gendered Construction of Scientific Excellence’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 36:2, 133–45

  109 Howard, Ehrlich, Gamlen and Oram (2017)

  110 Holdcroft (2007)

  111 Ibid.

  112 Marts and Keitt (2004)

  113 http://www.nature.com/news/infections-reveal-inequality-between-the-sexes-1.20131?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews

  114 Ortona, Delunardo, Baggio and Malorni (2016)

  115 http://www.goretro.com/2014/08/mothers-little-helper-vintage-drug-ads.html

  116 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198535/

  117 Ibid.

  118 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  119 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198535/

  120 Ibid.

  121 Ibid.

  122 http://www.ajmc.com/newsroom/women-taking-stains-faced-increased-diabetes-risk

  123 http://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/gender-matters-heart-disease-risk-in-women

  124 Pollitzer (2013)

  125 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ Jan 2016

  126 Whitley and Lindsey (2009)

  127 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/06/07/bad-medicine-the-awful-drug-reactions-americans-report/?utm_term=.1a7067d-40dce

  128 Tharpe, N. (2011), ‘Adverse Drug Reactions in Women’s Health Care’, Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 56, 205–13

  129 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/06/07/bad-medicine-the-awful-drug-reactions-americans-report/?utm_term=.1a7067d-40dce

  130 Marts and Keitt (2004)

  131 Carey, Jennifer L. et al. (2017), ‘Drugs and Medical Devices: Adverse Events and the Impact on Women’s Health’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1

  132 Yoon et al. (2014)

  133 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  134 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC198535/

  135 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2011/187103/

  136 Ibid.

  137 Anderson (2005)

  138 Wang, Lishi et al. (2017), ‘Sex Differences in Hazard Ratio During Drug Treatment of Non-small-cell Lung Cancer in Major Clinical Trials: A Focused Data Review and Meta-analysis’, Clinical Therapeutics, 39:1

  139 Ibarra, Vázquez and Fagiolino (2017)

  140 Whitley and Lindsey (2009)

  141 Ibid.

  142 Ibid.

  Chapter 11

  1 https://www.georgeinstitute.org/media-releases/disadvantaged-women-at-greater-risk-of-heart-disease-than-men-0

  2 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4800017/ Jan 2016; http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/133/9/916?sid=beb5f268-4205-4e62-be8f-3caec4c4d9b7

  3 http://heart.bmj.com/content/102/14/1142

  4 http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/133/9/916?sid=beb5f268-4205-4e62-be8f-3caec4c4d9b7 2016

  5 Ridker, Paul M. et al. (2005), ‘A Randomized Trial of Low-Dose Aspirin in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Women’, New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 1293–304

  6 Johannes, A. N. et al. (2011), ‘Aspirin for primary prevention of vascular events in women: individualized prediction of treatment effects’, European Heart Journal, 32:23, 2962–9

  7 Kruijsdijk, R. C. M. van et al. (2015), ‘Individualised prediction of alternate-day aspirin treatment effects on the combined risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease and gastrointestinal bleeding in healthy women’, Heart, 101, 369–76

  8 Wu, J. et al. (2016), ‘Impact of initial hospital diagnosis on mortality for acute myocardial infarction: A national cohort study’, European Heart Journal, 7:2

  9 https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/28/opinion/sunday/womens-atypical-heart-attacks.html?_r=0

  10 http://heart.bmj.com/content/102/14/1142

  11 Ibi
d.

  12 Yoon et al. (2014)

  13 http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/133/9/916?sid=beb5f268-4205-4e62-be8f-3caec4c4d9b7

  14 https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/a09-cardi-prim-percutaneous.pdf

  15 https://www.hqip.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/national-audit-of-percutaneous-coronary-intervention-annual-public-report.pdf

  16 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160304092233.htm 2016 march

  17 http://heart.bmj.com/content/102/14/1142 Published online 24 June 2016.

  18 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/03/160304092233.htm 2016 march

  19 Motiwala, Shweta R., Sarma, Amy, Januzzi, James L. and O’Donoghue, Michelle L. (2014), ‘Biomarkers in ACS and Heart Failure: Should Men and Women Be Interpreted Differently?’, Clinical Chemistry, 60:1

  20 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  21 http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/leru-paper-gendered-research-andinnovation.pdf

  22 Ibid.

  23 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  24 Schiebinger, Londa (2014), ‘Gendered innovations: harnessing the creative power of sex and gender analysis to discover new ideas and develop new technologies’, Triple Helix, 1:9

  25 Dijkstra, A. F, Verdonk, P. and Lagro-Janssen, A. L. M. (2008), ‘Gender bias in medical textbooks: examples from coronary heart disease, depression, alcohol abuse and pharmacology’, Medical Education, 42:10, 1021–8; ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands); https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10459-008-9100-z; Holdcroft (2007)

  26 Sakalihasan, N., Limet, R. and Defawe, O. D. (2005), ‘Abdominal aortic aneurysm’, Lancet, 365, 1577–89

  27 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  28 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/colon.html#tabs-2

  29 Ibid.

  30 Ibid.

  31 http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/gender_issues/Takingsexandgenderintoaccount.pdf

  32 United Nations Development Programme (2015), Discussion Paper: Gender and Tuberculosis

  33 ACTION (Advocacy to Control TB Internationally), ‘Women and Tuberculosis: Taking a Look at a Neglected Issue’, ACTION, Washington DC, 2010

  34 Ibid.

  35 United Nations Development Programme (2015), Discussion Paper: Gender and Tuberculosis

  36 ACTION (Advocacy to Control TB Internationally), ‘Women and Tuberculosis: Taking a Look at a Neglected Issue’, ACTION, Washington DC, 2010.

  37 Ibid.; United Nations Development Programme (2015), Discussion Paper: Gender and Tuberculosis

  38 ACTION (Advocacy to Control TB Internationally), ‘Women and Tuberculosis: Taking a Look at a Neglected Issue’, ACTION, Washington DC, 2010; United Nations Development Programme (2015), Discussion Paper: Gender and Tuberculosis

  39 http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/gender_issues/Takingsexandgenderintoaccount.pdf

  40 ACTION (Advocacy to Control TB Internationally), ‘Women and Tuberculosis: Taking a Look at a Neglected Issue’, ACTION, Washington DC, 2010

  41 United Nations Development Programme (2015), Discussion Paper: Gender and Tuberculosis

  42 ACTION (Advocacy to Control TB Internationally), ‘Women and Tuberculosis: Taking a Look at a Neglected Issue’, ACTION, Washington DC, 2010.

  43 Schiebinger (2014)

  44 http://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/case-studies/hiv.html#tabs-2

  45 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/autism-it-s-different-in-girls/

  46 https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/15597

  47 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/autism-it-s-different-in-girls/

  48 https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/15597

  49 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/autism-it-s-different-in-girls/

  50 https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/oct/21/m-in-the-middle-girls-autism-publish-novel-limpsfield-grange

  51 https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/adult-autism-strategy-guidance-update

  52 https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/oct/21/m-in-the-middle-girls-autism-publish-novel-limpsfield-grange

  53 https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/adhd-is-different-for-women/381158/?utm_source=quartzfb

  54 Hoffman, Diane E. and Tarzian, Anita J. (2001), ‘The Girl Who Cried Pain: A Bias Against Women in the Treatment of Pain’, Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 29, 13–27

  55 http://thinkprogress.org/health/2015/05/11/3654568/gender-roles-women-health/

  56 https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/06/listen-to-women-uk-doctors-issued-with-first-guidance-on-endometriosis

  57 https://www.endofound.org/endometriosis

  58 https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/sep/28/endometriosis-hidden-suffering-millions-women

  59 https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/06/listen-to-women-uk-doctors-issued-with-first-guidance-on-endometriosis

  60 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/stephen-hawking-says-women-are-the-most-intriguing-mystery-in-reddit-ama-a6687246.html

  61 https://www.birdvilleschools.net/cms/lib/TX01000797/Centricity/Domain/1013/AP%20Psychology/Femininity.pdf

  62 Showalter, Elaine (1985) The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture 1830–1980, London 1987

  63 https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/astounding-increase-inantidepressant-use-by-americans-201110203624

  64 http://pb.rcpsych.org/content/pbrcpsych/early/2017/01/06/pb.bp.116.054270.full.pdf

  65 https://academic.oup.com/painmedicine/article/10/2/289/article

  66 Hoffman and Tarzian (2001)

  67 Fillingim, R. B., King, C. D., Ribeiro-Dasilva, M. C., Rahim-Williams, B. and Riley, J. L. (2009), ‘Sex, Gender, and Pain: A Review of Recent Clinical and Experimental Findings’, Journal of Pain: Official Journal of the American Pain Society, 10:5, 447–85

  68 https://www.med.unc.edu/ibs/files/educational-gi-handouts/IBS%20in%20Women.pdf

  69 https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2012/04/16/150525391/why-women-suffer-more-migraines-than-men

  70 https://migraine.com/migraine-statistics/

  71 http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/will-this-hurt-doctor-much-more-if-you-are-a-woman-907220.html

  72 Greenspan, Joel D. et al. (2007), ‘Studying sex and gender differences in pain and analgesia: A consensus report’, Pain, 132, S26–S45

  73 Hoffmann and Tarzian (2001)

  74 Clayton, Janine Austin (2016), ‘Studying both sexes: a guiding principle for biomedicine’, The FASEB Journal, 30:2, 519–524

  75 http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/will-this-hurt-doctor-much-more-if-you-are-a-woman-907220.html

  76 http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=18106275

  77 Ibid.

  78 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92516/

  79 http://www.gendermedicine.com/1st/images/Oral02.pdf

  80 Kindig, David A. and Cheng, Erika R. (2013), ‘Even As Mortality Fell In Most US Counties, Female Mortality Nonetheless Rose In 42.8 Percent Of Counties From 1992 To 2006’, Health Affairs, 32:3, 451–8

  81 ‘Gender and Health Knowledge Agenda’, May 2015 (ZonMw, Netherlands)

  82 http://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303089

  83 Ibid.

  84 https://www.newscientist.com/article/2081497-women-live-longer-than-men-but-suffer-more-years-of-poor-health/

  85 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10433-008-0082-8

  86 http://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol20/19/20–19.pdf

  87 http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/318147/EWHR16_interactive2.pdf?ua=1

  88 https://www.researchgate.net/blog/post/why-do-we-still-not-know-what-causes-pms

  89 https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/erection-problems-erectile-dysfunction/treatment/

  90 https://www.he
alth.harvard.edu/womens-health/treating-premenstrualdysphoric-disorder

  91 https://www.researchgate.net/blog/post/why-do-we-still-not-know-what-causes-pms

  92 http://grantome.com/grant/NIH/R03-TW007438-02

  93 https://qz.com/611774/period-pain-can-be-as-bad-as-a-heart-attack-sowhy-arent-we-researching-how-to-treat-it/ 2016

  94 Ibid.

  95 http://grantome.com/grant/NIH/R03-TW007438-02

  96 Dmitrovic, R., Kunselman, A. R. and Legro, R. S. (2013), ‘Sildenafil citrate in the treatment of pain in primary dysmenorrhea: a randomized controlled trial’, Human Reproduction, 28:11, 2958–65

  97 http://edition.cnn.com/2013/03/27/health/viagra-anniversary-timeline/index.html

  98 http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/endocrinology/erectile-dysfunction/

  99 http://edition.cnn.com/2013/03/27/health/viagra-anniversary-timeline/index.html

  100 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/period-pain-can-feel-bad-heart-attack-ignored/

  101 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs348/en/

  102 https://www.pri.org/stories/2017–05-05/how-trumps-latest-budget-impacts-women-and-girls-classrooms-cops

  103 https://livestream.com/refinerytv/physiology2016/videos/131487028

  104 https://www.propublica.org/article/nothing-protects-black-women-from-dying-in-pregnancy-and-childbirth

  105 https://edition.cnn.com/2018/02/20/opinions/protect-mother-pregnancy-williams-opinion/index.html

  106 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26444126

  Chapter 12

  1 https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/review-the-growth-delusion-the-wealth-and-wellbeing-of-nations-by-david-pilling-b322223kc

  2 https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/g20-must-push-more-inclusive-gdp

  3 https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/nov/10/doing-the-chores-valued-at-1tn-a-year-in-the-uk

  4 http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf

  5 http://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf

  6 http://progress.unwomen.org/en/2015/pdf/UNW_progressreport.pdf

  7 https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/03/unpaid-caregivers/474894/

 

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