Eddius’s account of the journey to Gaul is predicated on Wilfrid’s apparent assertion that since none of the existing bishops in the island of Britain was canonically sound, he must travel to Gaul to ensure the orthodoxy of his consecration. Richard Abels considers that there may be a more prescient motive: if Alhfrith rebelled against his father in the months after Whitby and was killed, Northumbria might have been a bit too hot for Wilfrid to stick around. Typically, Oswiu seized this political opportunity, while Wilfrid extended his stay in Gaul, to declare the see vacant and install a man of British–Irish sympathies in his place. The man he chose was Chad, brother of Cedd the bishop of the East Saxons and another former pupil of Aidan.*5 He was dispatched to Kent, probably in anticipation that he would be consecrated by Wigheard on his return from Rome with the pallium. Oswiu, it seems, had managed to have his cake and eat it.
Oswiu could not have known that Wigheard would die and that the Pope would not send a replacement until almost the end of the decade. By the time Wilfrid returned, having been consecrated as bishop by Agilbert and having survived an unwelcome adventure at the hands of pagan wreckers on the south coast, he no longer had a see, or a patron to argue his cause. He retired, with apparent good grace, to his abbacy at Ripon, although given his later record of bitter conflict with kings and archbishops I doubt if he was happy with his lot. I suggest that meanwhile, from about 665 until Oswiu’s death, Ecgfrith was installed as sub-king in Deira; in time Wilfrid would forge relations with a new patron.
Between the battle on the Winwæd in 655 and 670 there is no record of military conflict between Northumbria and the other English or British kingdoms. Æthelberht of Kent, perhaps by right of historical tradition and moral authority, had held imperium without winning a great battle or having to display his leadership in war on annual hostings. Oswiu first proved himself in battle and then showed equal courage, skill and ruthlessness in maintaining his imperium in the face of a wholly new set of kingly challenges. After 655 his battles were political, dynastic: Whitby was his greatest tactical victory, a companion-piece to the equally unlikely triumph of the Winwæd. In uniting and extending the spiritual and civil reach of the church, Oswiu established his credentials as the first of the great British state-builders. He succeeded where that other Romanophile, Edwin, had failed. He was the first of his line to die in his bed. Believing himself to have fulfilled his sacral obligations and having convinced himself of the unifying values of the Roman church, he intended, as Bede records, to end his days in Rome with Wilfrid as his companion in pilgrimage. He was, instead, interred at Whitby where his widow and daughter would become abbesses; his son and undisputed heir Ecgfrith became king of all the Northumbrians in his stead. Shortly before his death a new archbishop was installed at Canterbury: Theodore, the improbably elderly Greek-speaking monk from Asia Minor who would take church and state reform to a new level in an extraordinary twenty-year career.
Oswiu’s political acumen and maturity are striking. Lacking his brother’s stellar charisma and ‘luck’, he substituted martial and magical fortune with a carefully calculated combination of ruthless expediency, canny debate and a startlingly mature, even visionary conception of government. If Oswald fused the kingly roles of pagan and Christian divinity with the heroic virtues of Beowulf, Oswiu developed a model of kingship more recognisable to historians of a much later period: a Henry VII to Oswald’s Prince Hal. He deployed his sometimes limited resources with considerable sophistication, taking counsel from wise bishops and an astute wife, sensitive to the prejudices of various constituencies but decisive in action and untroubled by moral doubt.
In establishing a new hierarchy and mechanism of political patronage and opening new career opportunities to the ever-widening ranks of Northumbrian nobility Oswiu surrendered part of his political capital: land which was alienated to the church could not easily be brought back into the royal portfolio and nor could it be given for a life interest to aspiring warriors. Under Oswiu the trickle of monastic donations was as yet small. Under his sons it turned into a flood. As the tide of royal patronage flowed towards the church, the bishops and abbots explored their own means of acquiring and spending political capital; in response more subtle and elaborate mechanisms for reinforcing dynastic prestige had to be developed by ruling houses. Now the kings of the English reached back into their pagan past to trade on the magical reputations of their heroic dead as reinforcement for their semi-divine status as the embodiment of the folc. The bodies and relics of royal warriors and holy men alike were deployed to establish title to the political resources of a nation. In this new hybrid pagan/Christian cult of the dead, King Oswald would become Saint Oswald and forge a new career every bit as potent as his temporal one had been.
*1Attempts by the distinguished archaeologists Dame Rosemary Cramp and my own teacher Philip Rahtz to reconstruct the evidence show that by the time of the first Viking raids on Northumbria around 800, Whitby must have been a substantial settlement. In fact, it had by then become the royal burial place of Northumbrian kings and queens, apparently taking on some of the tribal and dynastic functions of Yeavering.
*2Oswiu’s letter to Vitalian, taken to Rome by the unfortunate Wigheard who died soon after arrival, does not survive but Bede was able to quote verbatim from the Pope’s reply (EH III.29). Assuming that Oswiu did not dictate his letter to Wilfrid, the conclusion must be that the letter was written either by Colman’s immediate successor, Tuda or, more likely, by Eata after his succession to the abbacy of Lindisfarne. Alternatively, Oswiu might have waited until he had appointed a new bishop in Wilfrid’s absence: Bishop Chad.
*3Kemp 1996; Kemp and others have argued that there were at least two distinct areas of activity in later seventh-century York: around the church, which was probably close to the current minster in the Roman principia; and on the east bank of the River Ouse at its confluence with the River Foss.
*4EH III.14. Alhfrith is listed as one of those who, like Œthelwald, attacked Oswiu during his reign.
*5There were four brothers; the other two were Cynibil and Cælin. After Whitby Cedd returned to Essex but before long came to his own foundation at Lastingham and died there of the plague. He was briefly succeeded by Chad before his elevation to the bishopric.
Timeline: AD 642 to 671
ABBREVIATIONS
EH—Bede’s Ecclesiastical History
HB—Nennius’s Historia Brittonum
ASC—Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
AU—Annals of Ulster
ATig—Annals of Tigernach
PLC—Prose Life of Cuthbert
VW—Eddius Stephanus’s Vita Wilfridi
Names of battles are shown in bold
642
Campaign against Mercia by Oswald drives Penda into Wales. Oswald is killed in the Battle of Maserfelth on 5 August fighting against Penda of Mercia and possibly Welsh allies of Gwynedd. He is cut up and his head displayed on a pole at Oswestry/Croesoswald.
—Oswald is succeeded by his brother Oswiu in Bernicia and by Oswine (son of Osric: a cousin of Edwin) in Deira.
—Cynegisl of Wessex dies; succeeded by Cenwalh (a pagan: to 673). He marries a sister of Penda but repudiates her.
—Cuthbert given over to foster parents at Hruringaham.
—Domnall Brecc dies at hands of Owain mac Beli of Strathclyde in Battle of Strath Cairuin (Strathcarron).
643
King Oswiu goes to Oswestry and fetches Oswald’s remains; inters arms at Bamburgh in silver casket and gives head to Lindisfarne.
—Record of a battle between Oswiu and the Britons (ATig).
—Oswiu sends priest Utta for Eanflæd of Kent to be his wife. Miracle of the oil on stormy sea, by Aidan’s blessing.
—Miracles begin to be associated with the site of Oswald’s death.
643–50?
Periodic raids by Penda into Bernicia, as far as Lindisfarne.
—Death of Sigeberht of East Anglia, dragged from monastery and forced to fight a b
attle against the Mercians, who kill him (possibly as early as 635) (EH III.18); death of Ecgric of East Anglia in same battle; succeeded by Anna.
644
Paulinus dies as bishop of Rochester; buried in St Andrew’s, Rochester.
—Kentishman Ithamar succeeds Paulinus as bishop.
645
Penda drives Cenwalh of Wessex into three-year exile among East Anglians; Cenwalh protected by King Anna of East Anglia. —Ecgfrith born to Oswiu and Eanflæd, daughter of King Edwin.
c.646
Foundation of monastery at Hartlepool (Heruteu) by Heiu, ordained by Aidan ?first abbess of English monastery. Heiu soon retires to a dwelling at Kælcacæstir (?Tadcaster) and is replaced by Hild (c.650), great niece of King Edwin (EH IV.23).
647
Former Queen Æthelburh dies at her monastery at Lyminge in Kent, site of a former Roman villa.
—Possible date of foundation of monastery on north bank of River Wear (Chester-le-Street?) with Hild (aged thirty-three) as its first abbess.
648
Cenwalh regains throne of Wessex after exile in East Anglia.
—?Start of civil war between Oswiu and Oswine.
649
Possible date of attack on Northumbria as far as Bamburgh by Penda and Mercian army ‘during Aidan’s episcopate’ while he is living on Farne (could be as early as 644). Attempt to burn Bamburgh prevented by Aidan’s prayers, which deflect the wind.
—Wilfrid, aged sixteen, chooses to become a monk and is sent to Lindisfarne with Cudda, a paralysed former gesith and servant of Queen Eanflæd (VW 2).
650
Mercian attack on East Anglia: destruction of monastery at Cnobheresburg (Burgh Castle?); temporary expulsion of Anna to ?Magonsæte.
—Probable date of Agilbert’s installation as bishop of the West Saxons. ?Death of Birinus.
—?Cuthbert serving in Oswiu’s army ‘in the face of the foe’.
651
Oswine disbands army but is betrayed by his gesith Tondhere at Wilfaresdun north-west of Catterick and murdered. Oswine is succeeded as Deiran sub-king by Œthelwald aged ?sixteen (to 655).
—St Aidan dies in the church at ?Yeavering on 13 August (EH III.17). He is buried in the cemetery at Lindisfarne and succeeded by Bishop Finan.
—Monasteries by now founded at Melrose, Coldingham, and ?Gilling West (by Eanflæd, in expiation for the murder of Oswine). Trumhere, a kinsman of Eanflæd and Oswine, is first abbot of Gilling.
—?Cuthbert becomes monk at Melrose under Abbot Boisil.
652
Some time after this Oswiu is forced to retreat as far as Stirling and sue for peace, with hostages including Ecgfrith.
—Wilfrid in Wessex, received by king after letter of introduction by Eanflæd.
—Probable date of marriage of Æthelthryth of East Anglia to Tondberht, chief of the Gyrvians or ‘men of the fens’ (dies 655).
—Finan builds church on Lindisfarne, of hewn oak thatched with reeds (EH III.25).
—Death of Ségéne, abbot of Iona (AU, ATig).
—?Wilfrid travels to Kent under the protection of Eanflæd’s cousin King Eorcenberht to wait for suitable opportunity to travel to Rome; meets Benedict Baducing (Biscop); is exposed to current Roman version of Jerome’s psalms.
653
?Succession of Talorcan, son of Eanfrith, to kingdom of southern Picts.
—Peada of Mercia, Penda’s son, marries Oswiu’s daughter Alhflæd and is baptised Ad Muram by Finan; beginning of Irish mission to Middle Angles (roughly Leicestershire and Northamptonshire). Alhfrith is active in Peada’s conversion.
—?Sigeberht Sanctus of East Angles baptised by Finan Ad Muram (Newcastle?).
—Oswiu’s son Alhfrith (aged ?seventeen) probably marries Penda’s daughter Cyneburh.
—?Sigeberht the Little dies in Battle against Wessex. Sigeberht the Good succeeds to kingdom of Essex.
—Cedd sent by Oswiu to found see in Essex at Bradwell on Sea (Ythancaestir) and Tilbury; he is consecrated as its first bishop by Finan on Lindisfarne.
—Archbishop Honorius dies (last living member of Gregorian mission). Succeeded by Deusdedit, first native-born archbishop (consecrated 655: to 664)
—Wilfrid (aged ?nineteen) and Benedict Biscop make journey from Northumbria to Rome; Wilfrid stays for a year in Lyons on his way, and is taken under the wing of Dalfinus, who offers Wilfrid land and his daughter.
654
Penda kills King Anna of East Anglia at Battle of Bulcamp in Suffolk.
—?Foundation of Lastingham for Œthelwald (so he can be buried there) in remote part of North York Moors, under Cedd’s direction (EH III.23); must be before 655.
—Battle of Strath Ethairt: Talorcan defeats grandson of Áedán mac Gabráin (ATig).
—Birth of Ælfflæd, daughter of Oswiu and Eanflæd.
655
The ‘distribution of Iudeu’ and campaign against Oswiu by Penda on the ?Firth of Forth; Oswiu forced to give up a huge ransom (HB 65; EH III.24).
—Oswiu’s son by Eanflæd, Ecgfrith, held hostage under Queen Cynewise of Mercia.
—Battle of the River Winwæd, south of Leeds, probably at Thorpe Audlin where the River Went is crossed by Ermine Street. Penda, king of Mercia, and thirty chieftains (including Æthelhere, king of East Anglia) are killed. Œthelwald waits to see who will win. ?Oswiu kills him. Oswiu achieves dominance over Mercia. In thanks for victory Oswiu transfers one hundred and twenty hides to Lindisfarne control, for the establishment of twelve monasteries (this after an oath made in desperation at Urbs Giudi).
—Oswiu rules over Mercia until 658 (EH III.24).
—Oswiu subjects the Picts to his rule (EH III.24).
—With Peada, Oswiu founds Medehamstede (Peterborough) monastery.
—Oswiu transfers rule of Deira to his son Alhfrith aged ?seventeen.
—Wilfrid returns to Lyons after months in Rome and stays for three years with Dalfinus.
656
Peada murdered by treachery of Alhflæd.
657
Foundation of monastery at Whitby under Abbess Hilda; Ælfflæd is given into her hands.
—?Death of Talorcan, king of Picts and grandson of Æthelfrith and Bebba. Oswiu subjects the greater part of the Pictish race to English rule (EH III.24).
—Cumméne becomes abbot of Iona (to 669).
—Oswiu hands control of Southern Mercia, below the Trent, to Peada.
658
Count Dalfinus of Lyons is murdered on the orders of Queen Baldhild (former Anglo-Saxon slave and wife of Clovis II); Wilfrid returns from pilgrimage to Rome tonsured and with relics and gifts; granted ten hides of land at ?Stamford by Alhfrith, to whom he has been commended by Cenwalh of Wessex for his knowledge of Roman practices.
—Mercian rebellion by Immin, Eafa and Eadberht sets up Christian Wulfhere, son of Penda, as king of Mercia.
—Wulfhere makes Trumhere (formerly founding abbot at Gilling), kinsman of Eanflæd and Oswine, first bishop of Mercia.
659
?Abbot Eata founds monastery at Ripon, with Cuthbert as guestmaster (PLC VII).
660
Wilfrid given Ripon with thirty hides (VW 8). Bede says Alhfrith gave him forty hides (EH III.25). Wilfrid expels community of Eata including Cuthbert (PLC VIII) after dispute over Roman/Irish forms.
—?Ecgfrith marries Æthelthryth (later Ætheldreda or Audrey) of East Anglia, daughter of King Anna.
—Cumméne, abbot of Iona, visits Ireland to tour the Iona paruchia (ATig).
661
?Ælfwine, son of Oswiu and Eanflæd and brother of Ecgfrith, is born.
—Penda’s son Wulfhere ravages Ashdown at heart of kingdom of Wessex. New West Saxon see established in Winchester around this time.
—Death of Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne; succeeded by Colman.
—Death of King Sigeberht the Good of Essex; succeeded by Swithelm, son of Seaxbald; baptised by Cedd.
663
Wilfrid ordained
priest by Agilbert (Gaulish) of Dorchester-on-Thames (bishop of Wessex 648–60).
664
Re-endowment of Medehamstede (Peterborough) by Wulfhere with Oswiu and other kings as co-sponsors, witnessed by Archbishop Deusdedit; all sign with a + mark.
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