by Ben Kane
Textbooks are also indispensable. A bibliography of those I used while writing Hunting the Eagles would run to pages, so I will reference only the most important, in alphabetical order by author: Handbook to Legionary Fortresses by M. C. Bishop; Roman Military Equipment by M. C. Bishop and J. C. N. Coulston; Greece and Rome at War by Peter Connolly; The Complete Roman Army by Adrian Goldsworthy; Rome’s Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest by Adrian Murdoch; Eager for Glory: The Untold Story of Drusus the Elder, Germanicus, and Roman Soldier versus Germanic Warrior, all by Lindsay Powell; The Varian Disaster (multiple authors), a special edition of Ancient Warfare magazine. I’d like to mention the publishers Osprey and Karwansaray, whose publications are of frequent help, and the ever-useful Oxford Classical Dictionary.
Gratitude, as ever, to the members of www.romanarmytalk.com, for their rapid answers to my odd questions, and to Paul Harston and the legionaries of Roman Tours UK/Legion XX Deva Victrix for the same, and for providing men and materials for the covers of this and the other volumes in the trilogy. I want to thank Adrian Murdoch and Lindsay Powell, named above, for their patience, knowledge and generosity with their time. They have also been kind enough to read both this book and the previous one, and to provide corrections and words of wisdom. You are both true gentlemen.
I am indebted to a legion of people at my publishers, Random House. Selina Walker, my wonderful editor, mentioned at the start of this book, possesses an eagle eye quite like no other. She has also taught me a lot about writing. Thank you, Selina. Rose Tremlett, Aslan Byrne, Nathaniel Alcaraz-Stapleton, Caroline Sloan, David Parrish and Lizzy Gaisford, thank you! You all work so hard to ensure that my books do well. I’m also grateful to my foreign publishers, in particular to the team at Ediciones B in Spain. Other people must be named too, and thanked: Charlie Viney, my exceptional agent; Richenda Todd, my copy editor, a real star; Claire Wheller, my ever-present sports physio, who keeps my RSIs at bay; Arthur O’Connor, an old friend, for his criticism of, and improvements to, my stories.
Heartfelt gratitude also to you, my wonderful readers. You keep me in a job, for which I am so thankful. Anything not to go back to veterinary medicine! Your emails from around the world and contacts on Facebook and Twitter brighten up my days: please keep them coming. I often give away signed books and Roman goodies via these media, so keep your eyes peeled! I’ll also mention here that reviewing my books after you’ve read them, whether it be on Amazon (preferably the UK site), Goodreads, Waterstone’s, iTunes or other websites, is such a help. The reviews don’t have to be long or complicated.
All reviews of this book in the twelve months post UK publication (March 2016) are entitled to a signed, limited edition Hunting the Eagles postcard direct from me. If you’d like one, email me at the address below once you have left your review. Please supply your username, the site you’ve left it on, and your mailing details. I’ll do the rest. Thank you!
Last, but definitely not least, I want to express gratitude to Sair, my lovely wife, and Ferdia and Pippa, my beautiful children, for the boundless love and joy that they bring into my world.
Ways to contact me:
Email: [email protected]
Twitter: @BenKaneAuthor
Facebook: facebook.com/benkanebooks
Also, my website: www.benkane.net
YouTube (my short documentary-style videos): https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCorPV-9BUCzfvRT-bVOSYYw
Glossary
acetum:
sour wine, the universal beverage served to legionaries. Also the word for vinegar, the most common disinfectant used by Roman surgeons. Vinegar is excellent at killing bacteria, and its widespread use in Western medicine continued until late in the nineteenth century.
Adrana:
the River Eder.
Aesculapius:
the Romano-Greek god of medicine.
Ahenobarbus, Lucius Domitius:
the general who succeeded Tiberius as governor of Germania sometime between 6 BC and AD 2–3. He campaigned further into Germany than any other Roman leader, building an altar on the east bank of the River Elbe and receiving a triumph for his efforts. His army also built the Long Bridges (see relevant entry).
Albis:
the River Elbe.
Aliso:
a Roman fort on the River Lupia; possibly modern-day Haltern-am-See.
Amisia:
the River Ems.
amphora (pl. amphorae):
a two-handled clay vessel with a narrow neck and tapering base used to store wine, olive oil and other produce. Of many sizes, including those that are larger than a man, amphorae were heavily used in long-distance transport.
Andretium:
Muć, a village in modern Croatia.
aquilifer (pl. aquiliferi):
the standard-bearer for the aquila, or eagle, of a legion. The images surviving today show the aquilifer bare-headed, leading some to suppose that this was always the case. In combat, however, this would have been too dangerous; it’s probable that the aquilifer did use a helmet. We do not know either if he wore an animal skin, as the signifer did, but it is a common interpretation. The armour was often scale, and the shield carried probably a small one, which could be carried without using the hands. During the early empire, the aquila was made of gold, and was mounted on a spiked wooden staff, allowing it to be shoved into the ground. Sometimes the staff had arms, which permitted it to be borne more easily. Even when damaged, the aquila was not destroyed, but repaired time and again. If lost in battle, the Romans would do almost anything to get the standard back, as you have read in this book. (See also the entries for legion and signifer.)
Ara Ubiorum:
Cologne.
Arduenna Silva:
the Ardennes Forest.
as (pl. asses):
a small copper coin, worth a quarter of a sestertius, or a sixteenth of a denarius.
Asciburgium:
Moers-Asberg.
Augusta Treverorum:
Trier.
Augusta Vindelicorum:
Augsburg.
aureus (pl. aurei):
a small gold coin worth twenty-five denarii. Until the early empire, it had been minted infrequently.
auxiliaries (in Latin: auxilia):
it was common for Rome to employ non-citizens in its armies, both as light infantry and cavalry. By the time of Augustus, the auxilia had been turned into a regular, professional force. Roughly cohort-or double-cohort-sized units, they were of three types: infantry, cavalry or mixed. Auxiliary units were commanded by prefects, equestrian officers. It’s possible that Arminius may once have been such a commander – and that’s how I chose to portray him in Eagles at War.
Bacchus:
the Roman god of wine and intoxication, ritual madness and mania. Dionysos to the Greeks.
ballista (pl. ballistae):
a two-armed Roman catapult that looked like a crossbow on a stand, and which fired either bolts or stones with great accuracy and force.
barritus:
the war chant sung by German warriors.
Bonna:
Bonn.
Capitoline Hill:
one of the seven hills of Rome, at the top of which was a vast, gold-roofed temple dedicated to the triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.
centurion (in Latin, centurio):
centurions were the disciplined career officers who formed the backbone of the Roman army. (See also the entry for legion.)
century:
the main sub-unit of a Roman legion. Although its original strength had been one hundred men, it had numbered eighty men for close to half a millennium by the first century AD. The unit was divided into ten sections of eight soldiers, called contubernia. (See also the entries for contubernium and legion.)
Cerberus:
the monstrous three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to Hades. It allowed the spirits of the dead to enter, but none to leave. Circus Maximus: the enormous arena for chariot racing, f
ound between the Palatine and Aventine hills in Rome, and first built in the sixth or seventh centuries BC.
Civitas Nemetum:
Speyer.
cohort:
a unit comprising a tenth of a legion’s strength. A cohort was made up of six centuries, each nominally of eighty legionaries. Each century was led by a centurion. The centurion leading the first century was the most senior (this is Tullus’ rank); the centurions were ranked after him, in order of their century: second, third and so on. The cohorts followed the same line of seniority, so that the centurions of the First Cohort, for example, outranked those of the Second Cohort, who were more senior than those of the Third etc. (See also the entries for centurion, century, legion and legionary.)
Confluentes:
Koblenz.
contubernium (pl. contubernia):
a group of eight legionaries who shared a tent or barracks room and who cooked and ate together. (See also entry for legion.)
Danuvius:
the River Danube.
denarius (pl. denarii):
the staple coin of the Roman Empire. Made from silver, it was worth four sestertii, or sixteen asses. The less common gold aureus was worth twenty-five denarii.
Donar:
the German thunder god, and one of the only tribal deities attested in the early first century AD.
Drusus:
more correctly, Nero Claudius Drusus, brother of the later emperor Tiberius. Born in 38 BC, he began campaigning at the age of twenty-three. Three years later, Augustus entrusted the conquest of Germany to him. From 12 to 9 BC, he led consecutive and successful campaigns over the Rhine, dying after a fall from his horse during the final one.
equestrian:
a Roman nobleman, ranked just below the class of senator. It was possible to move upwards, into the senatorial class, but the process was not easy.
Fates:
Greek goddesses who determined man’s destiny. The notion of a universal power of fate was less evident among the Romans, which is why I have the characters deride the goddesses as Greek.
Fectio:
Vechten.
Flevo Lacus:
the Zuiderzee, now the IJsselmeer.
Fortuna:
the goddess of luck and good fortune. All deities were notorious for being fickle, but she was the worst.
Forum Romanum:
the main public square in ancient Rome, surrounded by huge buildings and overlooked by the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. The Forum was the beating heart of Roman religious, commercial and ceremonial life.
frameae (sing. framea):
the long spears used by most German tribesmen. They had a short, narrow iron blade and were fearsome weapons. Used in conjunction with a shield, they were used to stab, throw or swing at an opponent.
Gallia Belgica and Gallia Lugdunensis:
these were two of the four Gaulish provinces delineated by Augustus. The other two were Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Narbonensis. Three of the four were part of Tres Galliae (see relevant entry).
Germania:
in the years 9–16, the Romans regarded the lands along the Rhine as two provinces, Germania Inferior and Superior. The territory east of the Rhine could have been known as Germania Libera, or ‘free’ Germany, or simply ‘Germania’.
gladius (pl. gladii):
by the time of the early principate, the Republican gladius hispaniensis, with its waisted blade, had been replaced by the so-called ‘Mainz’ gladius (named because of the many examples found there). The Mainz was a short, steel sword, some 400–550 mm in length. Leaf-shaped, it varied in width from 54–75 mm to 48–60 mm. It ended with a ‘V’-shaped point that measured between 96 and 200 mm. It was a well-balanced sword for both cutting and thrusting. The shaped handgrip was made of ox bone; it was protected at the distal end by a pommel and nearest the blade by a hand guard, both made of wood. The scabbard was made from layered wood, sheathed by leather and encased at the edges by U-shaped copper alloy. The gladius was worn on the right, except by centurions and other senior officers, who wore it on the left. Contrary to what one might think, it is easy to draw with the right hand, and was probably positioned in this manner to avoid entanglement with the shield while being unsheathed.
Hades:
the Roman underworld.
Illyricum (or Illyria):
the Roman name for the lands that lay across the Adriatic Sea from Italy: including parts of Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro. Illyricum included the area known as Pannonia, which became a Roman province sometime during the first half of the first century AD.
intervallum:
the wide, flat area inside the walls of a Roman camp or fort. As well as serving to protect the barrack buildings or tents from enemy missiles, it allowed the massing of troops before patrols or battle.
Jupiter:
often referred to as ‘Optimus Maximus’ – ‘Greatest and Best’. Most powerful of the Roman gods, he was responsible for weather, especially storms. Jupiter was the brother as well as the husband of Juno.
latrunculi:
a two-person strategic Roman board game. Little information about its rules survive, which makes playing it as the Romans did rather difficult.
Laugona:
the River Lahn.
legate (in Latin, legatus legionis):
the officer in command of a legion, and a man of senatorial rank, most often in his early thirties. The legate reported to the regional governor. (See also the entry for legion.)
legion (in Latin, legio):
the largest independent unit of the Roman army. At full strength, it consisted of ten cohorts, each of which comprised 480 legionaries, divided into six centuries of eighty men. Every century was divided into ten sections, contubernia, of eight men. The centuries were each led by a centurion, each of whom had three junior officers to help run the unit: the optio, signifer and tesserarius. (See also the relevant entry for each.) Every century and cohort had their own standard; each legion possessed an eagle. The legion was commanded by a legate, whose second-in-command was the most senior of six tribunes, the tribunus laticlavius. The camp prefect, a former primus pilus (see entry below), was third-in-command; after him – we are not sure in what order – came the five junior tribunes and the primus pilus. One hundred and twenty cavalrymen were attached to each legion. (See entry for turmae.) In practice, no legion was ever at full strength. Sickness and detachments on duty in other places, and, in wartime, losses due to combat, were some of the reasons for this.
legionary:
the professional Roman foot soldier. A citizen, he joined the army in his late teens or early twenties, swearing direct allegiance to the emperor. In AD 9, his term of service was twenty years, with a further five years as a veteran. He was paid three times a year, after deductions for food and equipment had been made. Over a tunic, most often of white wool (and occasionally red), he probably wore a padded garment which served to dissipate the penetrative power of enemy weapons that struck his armour. Next came a mail shirt or the famous segmented iron armour, the so-called lorica segmentata (a modern name). Neck scarves are depicted on Trajan’s column and a few other friezes, but none have survived, so their frequency of use is unknown. Military belts were always worn, and for the most part covered by small tinned or silvered plates. It was common to suspend from the belt an ‘apron’ of four or more leather, metal-studded straps; these served as decoration and to protect the groin. Various types of helmet were in use during the early first century AD, made of iron, bronze or brass, sometimes with copper, tin and/or zinc alloy decorative pieces. The legionary carried a shield for defence, while his offensive weapons consisted of gladius, pilum and dagger (see entries for the first two). This equipment weighed well in excess of twenty kilos. When the legionary’s other equipment – carrying ‘yoke’, blanket, cooking pot, grain supply and tools – were added, his load came to more than forty kilos. The fact that legionaries were expected to march twent
y miles in five hours, carrying this immense weight, shows their high level of fitness. It’s not surprising either that they soon wore down the hobnails on their sandals.
lituus:
the curved bronze badge of office carried by soothsayers. Take a look at a modern bishop’s crozier to see that nothing changes!
Long Bridges:
the ‘Long Bridges’ wooden road over an area of bogland in northwestern Germany. (See also entry for Ahenobarbus, Lucius Domitius.)
Lupia:
the River Lippe.
Mare Germanicum:
the North Sea.
Mars:
the god of war. All spoils of war were consecrated to him, and few Roman commanders would go on campaign without having visited Mars’ temple to ask for the god’s protection and blessing.
Mattium:
the tribal capital of the Chatti people. Its exact location is unknown, but it was built close to the Adrana (Eder) river, and may have been near the modern town of Fritzlar.
Mercury (in Latin, Mercurius):
the Roman god of circulation, and messenger to the other deities.
Mogontiacum:
Mainz.
Neptune (in Latin, Neptunus):
the god of the sea.
Novaesium:
Neuss.
optio (pl. optiones):
the officer who ranked immediately below a centurion; the second-in-command of a century. (See also the entry for legion.)
phalera (pl. phalerae):
a sculpted disc-like decoration for bravery which was worn on a chest harness, over a Roman officer’s armour. Phalerae were often made of bronze, but could also be made of silver or gold. I have even seen one made of glass. Torques, arm rings and bracelets were also awarded to soldiers.
pilum (pl. pila):
the Roman javelin. It consisted of a wooden shaft some 1.2 m long, joined to a thin iron shank approximately 0.6 m long, and was topped by a small pyramidal point. The javelin was heavy and when launched, its weight was concentrated behind the head, giving tremendous penetrative force. It could drive through a shield to injure the man carrying it, or lodge in the shield, rendering it unusable. The range of the pilum was about thirty metres, although the effective range was about half this distance.