Khyber Agency, Pakistan, 109–10, 131, 244
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, 32–33, 77, 105, 119, 129, 131–32, 165, 168, 244, 255, 269, 271, 274
Khyber Pass, 107
Kidwai, Khalid, 211, 213–14, 215
Kissinger, Henry, 123, 189
knowledge management, 36
Korean war, 177, 183, 187
kufar, 100, 257
Kunar province, Afghanistan, 118, 121, 195
Kurram Agency, Pakistan, 109–10, 131, 244, 247
Labor party (Great Britain), 46
Lahore Declaration, 150
Lakhvi, Zia-Ur-Rehman, 253
Lal Masjid (Red Mosque) standoff and military operation, 190
land grants, in return for service in Indian Army, 61
land reforms, 48
language, 143–44, 163. See also specific languages
Lanpher, Gordon, 153
Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LeJ), 244, 248, 252, 255
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), 13, 17, 79, 139, 190, 217, 227, 243–44, 249–51, 260
case study of, 253–59
domestic politics and, 254
Pakistan’s control over, 251–52
social services provided by, 258–59
training center, 253
lashkars (militia members), 92, 139, 226
lawyers’ movement, 266
Liaquat, Maulvi, 246
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), 157
Line of Control (LOC), 1, 26, 94, 150, 151, 152–53, 240–41, 268
Local Governance Ordinance of 2001, 132
Lok Sabha, 229
low-intensity conflict (LIC), 16–17, 167–68, 169, 219, 221–22, 238–43, 250, 259, 301n9
Lytton, Lord, 107, 108, 298n7
MacMunn, George, 60
madrassahs, 49, 128, 246
Mahmud, Shah, 298n4
Malakand Agency, Pakistan, 109–10, 131
Malik, Akhtar Husain Lt. Gen., 159
Malik, Rehman, 119, 248
maliks, 110, 130
Manekshaw, Sam, 148
Maoist insurgents, 157
Mao Tse-Tung, 233
martial history, Islamic, 97–100
martial law, 30, 70
martial races, 9, 27, 59–60, 61, 143, 294n13
Massoud, Ahmad Shah, 101, 122, 126, 127, 129
Maududi, Maulana Abul A’la, 81
Maulana Fazlullah, 195
maulvis, 83
McGhee, George, 177
media, 15, 35–36, 75, 208, 265–66, 305n12. See also specific media outlets;
in China, 184
coverage of Shakai Accord, 245
coverage of the Kargil War, 90
electronic, 70
India and, 36, 172
intelligence agencies and, 172
Islamic values and, 70
jihad and, 91–92
misinformation provided by, 36
Pakistan Army and, 30, 36, 198–99
Pakistani, 172
Mehsud, Baitullah, 245, 246, 252
Mehsud, Hakimullah, 245, 246, 252
Messervy, Frank, 49
Middle East Defense Organization, 179
Military Operations Directorate, 151
Minar-e-Pakistan, 150
Mohammad, Dost, 106–7, 298n5, 298n6
Mohammad, Ghulam, 300n23
Mohammad, Sufi, 246
Moh-e-Moqadis, theft of, 92–93
Mohmand Agency, Pakistan, 121, 131, 244, 247
momin, ideal of, 86–87
Most Favored Nation Status, 187
Mountbatten, Louis, 46–47, 48, 50, 51, 65, 293n7, 294n12
Mughal Empire, 230
Muhajirs, 143, 300n23
Muhammad, Gul, 167
Muhammadi, Mawlawi Muhammad Navi, 125
Muhammed, the Prophet, 236, 304n9
Mujaddidi, Sibghatullah, 125, 127
mujahideen. See Islamist militant groups
Mujibnagar, 147
Mukti Bahini (Liberation Force, Bengali insurgents), 96, 147, 297n16. See also under Bengalis
mullahs, 83. See also maulvis
Multan, Pakistan, 33, 204
Mumbai, India, terrorist attacks in, 16, 139, 190, 217, 250, 252, 253, 259
munafiqin, 245, 254–55, 256–57
muratid, 100
Muridke, India, 252
murtads, 245
Musa, Mohammad, 92–93, 160, 189
Musharraf, Pervez, 53, 81, 114, 120, 132, 141, 151, 190, 211, 214–15, 217, 243, 262
address to nation after December 2001 Jaish-e-Mohammad attack on Indian Parliament, 97
assassination attempt against, 296n3
authoritarianism of, 266
Constitution of 1973, Article 58–2(b) and, 263–64
coup d’états by, 89
coup of, 87
formation of NCA, 218
Islamist groups and, 78–79
Islamization and, 77–78
memoirs of, 37–38
mujahideen and, 78–79
Pakistan Taliban and, 79
platform of Enlightened Modernization, 78
“A Plea for Enlightened Moderation,” 78
on proxy wars, 220
revisionism and, 1, 3, 16, 20, 23, 29, 35
secularism of, 77
steps down as army chief, 88–89
Taliban and, 248
Muslim campaigns, early, 98–100
Muslim League (Quaid e Azam Group) (PML-Q), 42, 43–45, 54, 77, 90, 113–14, 292n3, 293n7
Muslims, 10, 40, 41, 44, 48, 54, 60, 237. See also specific sects;
Ahmediyas as, 296n6
in India, 42–43, 58, 193
in Indian Army (British), 59–63
Kashmiri, 271, 273
Muslim-majority provinces, 44–45
Muslim-minority provinces, 45
as a “nation,” 278–79, 293n6
two-nation theory and, 43–44
Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA), 77
Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement (MDA), 114, 179–80, 233
mysticism, 254
Naga rebels, 16
Nangarhar province, Afghanistan, 121, 125
Naqvi, Anwar Shafiq, 57
Naqvi, Saifi Ahmad, 96, 97
narratives, distorted, 199, 279–80
Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza, 290n7, 295n1
National Accountability Bureau, 35
National Assembly (Pakistan), 146; 5th, 262; 12th, 262; 13th, 262, 265
national character, 86–87
National Defence College (later became National Defence University), 34, 52, 100, 157, 162
National Finance Commission, 264
National Highway Authority, 35
National Islamic Front of Afghanistan (Mahaz-i-Milli Islami ye Afghanistan), 126
nationalism, 8, 74, 87–88, 90
National Reconstruction Bureau, 236
national security discourse, 103
natural disasters, 276
2004 tsunami in Southeast Asia, 258–59
2005 Kashmir earthquake, 259
floods of 2010, 276
Nawai-i-Waqt, 207
Nawaz, Shuja, 32, 36, 49–50, 134, 269
Nayar, Kuldip, 137
Nazi Germany, 19
Nazir, Maulvi, 252
Nazir, Mullah, 245
Neelum Valley, 151
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 42, 48, 50, 51, 56, 140, 177, 179, 193, 229, 293n6
Nepal, 60, 61, 157, 252
New Delhi, India, 16–17, 97, 138–39, 153, 155
newspapers, 76
Niazi, A. A. K., 94–95, 149, 160–61, 230–32
Nixon, Richard, 149, 182, 189
Nizam of Hyderabad, 47, 48
“no first-use policy,” 213
nonbelievers, 100
nonmartial races, 59–60, 61, 63, 95, 143, 294n13
non-Muslims, 91, 101. See also specific groups
nonnuclear period, 223
nonproliferation regime, 193, 303–4n7
nonstate actors: nuclear weapons and, 210
use of, 26–27, 122, 226, 227–37, 250
nonweaponized deterrence, 221
North Africa, 177
North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO), 118, 196, 244, 246, 263, 301n4
Northern Alliance, 127, 129, 246
Northern Areas, 33. See also Gilgit-Baltistan province, Pakistan Kashmir
North Korea, 11, 26, 210
North Waziristan, Pakistan, 109–10, 121–22, 131, 132, 244, 246, 248
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Pakistan, 33, 44–46, 50, 60–62, 77, 104–5, 107–14, 121, 128, 130–32, 171, 246. See also Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan
nuclearization: conflict rate and, 223–24, 224, 243, 259–60, 303n6, 304n8
periodization of, 223, 303n6
nuclear program (Pakistan), 3, 16–17, 26–27, 137–39, 200, 202, 302n1
China and, 190
command and control, 210–12, 218
delivery vehicles, 209, 212
as deterrent, 223
efficacy of, 221
Indian, 229
Islamic terrorists and, 211
National Command Authority (NCA), 218
origins of, 203–9
proliferation and, 210–12
sanctions against Pakistan’s nuclear program, 300n21
security and, 202–25
Strategic Plans Division (SPD) more? 218
US sanctions against, 193, 303–4n7
nuclear technology, civilian, 229
nuclear tests, 204
1964 nuclear test by China, 229
1974 nuclear test by India, 205, 218–19, 238
in 1989, 190
reciprocal tests in 1998, 209, 217, 221, 250, 303n6
nuclear weapons, 7, 12, 15, 16–17, 27, 66, 193, 197, 202–27, 223, 229, 250. See also nuclearization, conflict rate and nuclear program (Pakistan) nuclear tests as deterrent, 213–21, 242, 243, 260
elite consensus on, 34–35
guerrilla warfare and, 228–30
India and, 136, 138, 202, 211, 229
Indo-US civilian nuclear deal, 216
Iran and, 210
Iraq and, 217
Islam and, 206
Islamist militants and, 210, 226–60
Israel and, 211, 217
jihad and, 226–60
locks on, 302–3n3
low-intensity conflict and, 238–43
militant groups and, 296n3
nonstate actors and, 210
nuclear ambiguity, 229, 240
nuclear black market, 210
nuclear celibacy, 229
nuclear deterrence doctrine, 213–17, 219–21, 223, 260
nuclear doctrine, 213–17, 242–43
nuclear proliferation, 10, 210–12
people’s war and, 238–43
risk taking and, 218–21
Soviet Union and, 217
strategic culture and, 11–12
United States and, 203
US-Pakistan relations and, 205–7, 211, 212–13, 216–18, 225, 303–4n7
Nye, Joseph, 24
Obama Administration, 219
Objectives Resolution, 69, 144
Omar, Mullah, 125, 128, 133, 251
One Unit Scheme, 131, 145, 146, 161, 300n23
Operation Brasstacks, 137. See also Brasstacks Crisis of 1986–1987
Operation Fairplay, 123
Operation Gibraltar, 93, 94, 142, 160, 182, 204, 236, 301n3
Operation Grand Slam, 142
Operation Instruction, 147
Operation Parakram, 139
Operation Searchlight, 147
Orakzai, Pakistan, 131, 244, 247
Organization of Islamic Cooperation, annual meeting of, 78
Organization of Islamic Countries, Council of Foreign Ministers, 219
Orientalism, 59–60, 162, 163, 294n14
Osirak reactor, 217
Osmani, M. A. G., 147
Oudh, 293n5
Oxus River, 299n14
Pakhtunistan, 116, 120, 123, 132, 299n16
Pakhtun region, 56, 107, 116, 135, 226, 244, 245, 248
Pakhtuns, 11, 31, 108–10, 112, 116, 120, 122, 124, 128–30, 132, 247, 279, 290n6
2009 survey of, 274
Pakhtun ethnic movement, 113
Pakhtun Islamist militant groups, 126
Pakhtun mullahs, 125
Pakhtun nationalists, 114, 116, 126, 136, 168
in Pakistan Army, 59, 62, 63
Pakistan, 1, 119, 126, 137, 283, 284, 286. See also East Pakistan
West Pakistan
13th Parliament, 263
1956 Constitution, 131–32, 144
1973 Constitution, 29, 30, 70
1985 elections, 30
1989 nuclear tests, 190
Afghanistan and (see Afghanistan) alliances of, 281
break with parliamentary democracy, 89
British management of the frontier, 105–12
China and (see China Sino-Pakistani relations); Christians in, 68
civil aviation accord with China, 186–87
civil society in, 262, 265–67
civil war of 1971, 96
coining of name, 43–44
conflict acceptance by, 3
Constituent Assembly, 68–69
control over militant groups, 251–52
counterinsurgency efforts by, 248–49
counterterrorism efforts by, 248–49
creation of, 46
decolonization and, 46
defense policy and, 11
democracy in, 65, 261, 262–65
economy of, 17–18, 58, 91, 183, 247, 262, 267–69, 276–77, 280
ethnic groups in, 26–27, 68, 102 (see also specific groups) ethnicity in, 86–88, 101, 171
Foreign Ministry, 193
as fortress of Islam, 97
as a “greedy state,” 12, 289–90n5
heavy investment in armed forces, 17–18
Hindus in, 58, 68
idea of, 41–46, 292n4
ideology and, 7, 21, 66–102
imagining, 41–46
independence movement in, 9, 40, 42
independence of, 40
India and, 172–73
internal security problems of, 280
international assistance and, 174
international community and, 18, 261, 275, 276
Islamic national identity and, 7, 21
as an Islamic state, 69–70 (see also Islam Islamization)
Islamist militants and (see Islamist militant groups)
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 208
Ministry of Information, 198, 305n12
name of, 292n4
National Assembly, 188
non-Muslims in (see specific groups); nuclear weapons and (see nuclear program (Pakistan))
parliament, 29
parliamentary processes in, 65
Parsees in, 68
political class of, 248
possible changes in, 262–77
proxy fighters in, 226–27
reciprocal tests in 1998, 250
reliance upon US weapon systems, 64
religion and, 86–88
revisionism and, 18
sectarian groups in, 26–27 (see also specific groups); security of, 18
Senate Standing Committee on Defense, 196
Shia Muslims in, 254
Sikhs in, 58, 68
Soviet Union and (see Soviet Union)
stability and, 18, 222
stability of, 18
as a Sunni state, 170
terrorism and, 252, 255–56, 255, 296n3 (see also terrorism)
unification across ethnicity and creed, 86–88
US and (see under United States (US))
Pakistan Air Force, 27–28, 129, 209, 210, 297n13
Pakistan Air Force College, 59
“The Pakistan Army,” 92, 93–94, 95, 167
Pakistan Army, 10, 114, 117–18, 129, 190–201, 225,
260, 292n17, 297n14, 301n9, 305n12
2004 offensive in South Waziristan, 245
access and, 35–36
Army Strategic Forces Command, 64
assistance from Great Britain, 63–64
assistance from the United States, 63–64
Azad Kashmir Regiment, 84
Bengalis in, 62–63
British military recruitment policies of, 9
building, 63–65
building and modernization of, 63–65
candidates for, 31–34
changes in, 262, 269, 271–74
chaplain corps in, 296n9, 296n10
civilian evaluations of, 292n19
colonial heritage of, 59–63
Command and Staff College, 82, 85, 100, 162
corps headquarters, 64, 64
culture of, 59–63
defeat and, 279
defense literatures, 100, 166–68
defense planners, 234
depiction of, 92
deterrence and, 214–17
discourse and, 34–35
domestic affairs and, 5, 6, 30
dominance of, 27–28
East Bengal Regiment, 62
Eastern Military High Command, 231
educational curricula and, 30, 95–97
enlisted personnel in, 31–32
epistemic communities and, 35–36, 38
ethnic diversity in, 31, 59–63, 86, 269, 270, 271, 274, 276 (see also specific groups); ethnocentrism of, 9
Evaluation and Research Cell, 211
excessive force used by, 95
foreign deployments, 83–84
foreign policy and, 29–31
Frontier Constabulary, 247
Frontier Corps, 247
General Headquarters, 34, 36–37, 49, 64, 227, 296n3
geographical recruitment bas of, 12
as “greedy state,” 4–5
growth of, 64
I Corps, 64
ideology and, 26, 40, 45, 66–102, 278–79, 280
ideology of, 268, 274
II Corps, 64
India and, 25–26
Indo-Pakistani economic ties and, 268
instrumentalization of Islam (see Islam, instrumentalization of)
intelligence agencies and, 251–53 (see also specific agencies); Inter-Services/General Headquarters Selcection and Review Board, 33
Islamic training and, 82
Islamism and, 81–85
Islamization and, 66–102
IV Corps, 64
media and, 30, 36, 198–99
militant groups and (see Islamist militant groups specific groups)
modifications to organizational structure, 64
morale of, 89
motivating for war, 95–101
National Command Authority (NCA), 211, 218
Nationalization Committee, 58–59
Northern Light Infantry, 90, 151–52
obsession with India, 11
officers in, 31–32, 35, 65, 83, 85, 95–96, 269, 270, 276, 292n18, 297n18
organization of, 65
Pakhtuns in, 59, 62, 63
Fighting to the End Page 56