by B D Hoyos
THE CARTHAGINIANS
The Carthaginians reveals the complex culture, society and achievements of a famous, yet misunderstood ancient people. Beginning as Phoenician settlers in North Africa, the Carthaginians then broadened their civilisation with influences from neighbouring North African peoples, Egypt, and the Greek world. Their own cultural influence in turn spread across the Western Mediterranean as they imposed dominance over Sardinia, western Sicily, and finally southern Spain.
As a stable republic Carthage earned respectful praise from Greek observers, notably Aristotle, and from many Romans – even Cato, otherwise notorious for insisting that ‘Carthage must be destroyed’. Carthage matched the great city-state of Syracuse in power and ambition, then clashed with Rome for mastery of the Mediterranean West. For a time, led by her greatest general Hannibal, she did become the leading power between the Atlantic and the Adriatic.
It was chiefly after her destruction in 146 BC that Carthage came to be depicted by Greeks and Romans as an alien civilisation, harsh, gloomy and bloodstained. Demonising the victim eased the embarrassment of Rome’s aggression; Virgil in his Aeneid was one of the few to offer a more sensitive vision. Exploring both written and archaeological evidence, The Carthaginians reveals a complex, multicultural and innovative people whose achievements left an indelible impact on their Roman conquerors and on history.
Dexter Hoyos writes on Latin teaching and ancient history. His books include Unplanned Wars (1998), Hannibal’s Dynasty (Routledge, 2003), Truceless War (2007), and Hannibal: Rome’s Greatest Enemy (2008). He has retired after 36 years at Sydney University to continue research work on Romans and Carthaginians.
PEOPLES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
This series stands as the first port of call for anyone who wants to know more about the historically important peoples of the ancient world and the early Middle Ages.
Reliable, up-to-date and with special attention paid to the peoples’ enduring legacy and influence, Peoples of the Ancient World will ensure the continuing prominence of these crucial figures in modern-day study and research.
THE ROMANS
An Introduction Second Edition
Antony Kamm
THE GREEKS
An Introduction to their Culture Second Edition
Robin Sowerby
THE PERSIANS
Maria Brosius
THE TROJANS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS
Trevor Bryce
MYCENAEANS
Rodney Castleden
THE EGYPTIANS
An Introduction
Robert Morkot
THE BABYLONIANS
An Introduction
Gwendolyn Leick
THE ISRAELITES
An Introduction
Antony Kamm
THE CARTHAGINIANS
Dexter Hoyos
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2010
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
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This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.
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© 2010 Dexter Hoyos
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Hoyos, B. D. (B. Dexter), 1944
The Carthaginians / Dexter Hoyos.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Carthaginians. 2. Carthage (Extinct city)--Civilization.
3. Carthage (Extinct city)--History. I. Title.
DT269.C34H69 2010
939’.73--dc22
2009048666
ISBN 0-203-85132-3 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 10: 0-415-43644-3 (hbk)
ISBN 10: 0-415-43645-1 (pbk)
ISBN 10: 0-203-85132-3 (ebk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-415-43644-1 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-415-43645-8 (pbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-203-85132-6 (ebk)
TO THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER, BEN
(1913–2009)
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements xi
Keys to the Maps xiii
Illustrations xxi
Sources of Images xxiii
Chronological Table xxvi
Sources of knowledge xxxiii
I The Phoenicians in the West 1
The Phoenicians 1
Sidon and Tyre 2
Settlements in the West 3
II Carthage: Foundation and Growth 6
Tales of the foundation 6
Legends and truths 7
Carthage: site and potential 12
III State and Government 20
Citizens and aristocrats 20
Carthaginian names 23
Praise from Greeks 24
Chief magistrates: the sufetes 25
Adirim: the senate of Carthage 28
The mysterious ‘pentarchies’ 31
The generals 33
Nemesis of generals: the court of One Hundred and Four 35
The assembly of citizens 36
IV The Carthaginian ‘sea empire’ 39
Carthage and North Africa 39
Carthage and the Etruscans 43
First treaty with Rome 44
Projection of power: Sardinia 45
Projection of power: Sicily 47
Carthage, Spain and the Atlantic 49
Hanno’s Periplus 51
Himilco’s voyage 54
An expansionist policy? 55
V Traders and landowners: Carthaginian society 59
Trade and traders 59
Land and landowning 62
Workers and labourers 67
Slaves 69
VI The Cityscape of Carthage 73
The growth of the city 73
Temples and other sacred buildings 76
Houses and shops 82
Public buildings 86
The land fortifications and the ports 88
VII Religion and cultural life 94
The gods and goddesses 94
The ‘tophet’ and child sacrifice 100
Literature at Carthage: did it exist? 105
Visual art, including coinage 108
VIII Carthage in Africa 124
Politics and rivalries: Mazeus-‘Malchus’ 124
The Magonid ascendancy 128
The end of the Magonids 132
The ascendancy of Hanno ‘the Great’ 134
Politics and war in the late 4th Century: Bomilcar’s putsch 138
The Libyans and Numidians 142
IX Carthage at War: Sicily 149
The Carthaginian war machine: the navy 149
Carthage’s armies 153
Carthaginians and Greeks in the 5th Century 163
Carthage vs Dionysius I 166
Carthage and Timoleon 170
The age of Agathocles: Carthage at bay 172
Carthage and Pyrrhus 176
X The First War w
ith Rome, and After 178
The second and third treaties with Rome 178
The outbreak of the war 181
Phases of war: 264 to 257 183
Africa invaded and saved: 256 to 255 185
Victories, defeats, stalemate: 254 to 242 186
Peace and revolt 189
XI The New Empire and Hannibal 193
The Sardinia crisis 193
The new empire in Spain 194
The coming of the Second Punic War 197
Hannibal invades Italy 199
Hannibal, master of southern Italy 201
Limitations and setbacks 202
Metaurus, Zama and peace 203
Hannibal’s war: an assessment 205
XII Revival and Destruction 207
Politics and reforms 207
Peace and plenty 208
Carthage and Numidia 211
Politics at home and war with Masinissa 213
The outbreak of the Third Punic War 214
The Third Punic War 216
XIII Carthage in History 220
Notes 224
Select Bibliography 234
Index 241
note: Punic writing, like Phoenician and Hebrew, did not use vowels. Modern transliterations of Punic words and names therefore do not add vowels, but in places I add a written-out version of a word for greater clarity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a special pleasure to acknowledge the encouragement, collaboration and help which many people and institutions have generously given as I prepared The Carthaginians. In first place I must thank Richard Stoneman for suggesting the topic and readily accepting my optimistic outline when he directed classical publications at Routledge. Routledge’s support for the work has continued steadily since then, in spite of my slow work and distractions, and I owe much in the latest stages of composition to the firm and friendly guidance of my series editor Lalle Pursglove. Sydney University, my professional centre for thirty-six years, has provided invaluable facilities for my research even after I left full-time academic life for what I thoughtlessly supposed would be serene retirement. Sydney University Library in turn is one of the most supportive institutions that I know for scholarly work, in both its facilities and its staff.
The illustrations for the book I owe to a generous range of scholars and institutions. Professor M’hamed Hassine Fantar, Titulaire de la Chaire Ben Ali pour le Dialogue des Civilisations et des Religions at the University of Tunisia, gave me immediate permission to use images from his vividly illustrated book Carthage: La cité punique, and so did its publisher, CNRS Editions of Paris. The Institut National du Patrimoine in the Ministère de la Culture et de la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine, Republic of Tunisia, and its Directeur Général Professor Fathi Bejaoui have with equal generosity authorised me to reproduce images of Carthaginian materials held in the great museums of Tunisia. The Badisches Landesmuseum of Karlsruhe, Germany, in turn authorised me to use two evocative photographs in its possession.
Most images themselves are taken, in turn, from the splendid volume edited by Sabine Peters, Hannibal ad Portas: Macht und Reichtum Karthagos, published by Theiss Verlag of Stuttgart, Germany, to accompany the wide-ranging exhibition of Carthaginian, Phoenician and related artefacts presented at the Badisches Landesmuseum in 2004. Theiss Verlag, through its executive in Programmleitung Mr Rüdiger Müller, has both encouraged my efforts and granted me the permission to make the necessary scans of images from that work.
The selection of coins I owe to the renewed kindness of my university colleague and friend Dr Stephen Mulligan of Sydney, who combines a distinguished professional career in haematology with an expert knowledge of Carthaginian numismatics. The high-quality coin images were made by Colin Pitchfork and Bob Climpson of Noble Numismatics Pty. Ltd., Sydney, who found the time for this task in spite of their own busy commitments.
Finally I must acknowledge the debt I owe to my wife Jann and daughter Camilla, whose support and love are the bedrock of my life, both in and outside scholarship.
MAPS
The maps have been drawn by the author to show the principal places mentioned in this book. The largest and most detailed maps of the Mediterranean world will be found in R. J. A. Talbert (ed.), The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World (Princeton Univ. Press, 2000).
Map 1A Carthage: the City
Map 1B
Map 2 Carthage and Libya
Key to Map 2
Map 3A The Mediterranean World
Key to Map 3A
Map 3B Sardinia
Map 3C Sicily
Key to Map 3C
ILLUSTRATIONS
Cover Statuette of a Carthaginian goddess with lionesshead:
head: Isis or, less likely, Tanit
The lioness-head is an Egyptian motif, while the goddess’ robe is Greek in style; her legs are clasped by huge wings, an Isis-cult motif (compare Illustration 21). From Thinissut on the Cape Bon peninsula, after 146 bc: an example of surviving Carthaginian cultural influence.
Sea walls, c. 400 bc: artist’s reconstruction 74
Mausoleum at Thugga (2nd Century bc) 79
Stone cippus from Carthage: rectangular tower design and ‘bottle’ symbol on side 80
View of the ‘tophet’ at Carthage 81
Painting of city in Jebel Mlezza tomb VIII 82
View of the ‘Hannibal quarter’ on Byrsa’s southern slope 84
Another view of the ‘Hannibal quarter’ 84
Carthage 1958
Circular naval port in foreground, ‘tophet’ to the right of the rectangular commercial port, heights of Borj-el-Jedid and village of Sidi Bou Said in background. 86
Carthage c. 200 bc: artist’s reconstruction
The view is from the hill of Byrsa looking south, with the agora, the artificial ports and Falbe’s Quadrilateral beyond. 89
The artificial ports area c. 1922 The peninsula stretching beyond the rectangular port has developed far beyond its ancient extent. 90
Entrance to house at Kerkouane, with ‘sign of Tanit’ 96
The ‘Isis priestess’ from Ste Monique tomb: marble lid of sarcophagus 97
Ivory mirror-handle depicting a goddess(?), c. 7th Century 109
Terracotta statuette of a goddess, 7th–6th Century 109
Mother and child at baking oven 110
Terracotta tondo: cavalryman and his hound 111
Fluteplayer from Carthage: terracotta statuette, 4th Century 114
Bronze mirror (back), profile of a goddess 115
Terracotta head of Medusa 115
Cippus from Hadrumetum 116
Stele of a youth, from Hadrumetum 117
Ossuary of a priest from Ste Monique tomb, 4th–3rd Centuries 118
Another Isis effigy: terracotta statuette 119
A selection of Carthaginian coins from Sicily and North Africa 122
Heavy-armed infantry on the march: jasper scarab from Kerkouane, 4th Century bc 159
Front and back parade armour (4th–3rd Centuries bc) found at Ksour Essaf, near Sousse 160
SOURCES OF IMAGES
1. From M. H. Fantar, Carthage: La cité punique, p. 39, by permission of the author and publisher.
2. From S. Peters (ed.), Hannibal ad Portas, p. 63: by permission of the Badisches Landesmuseum, Karslruhe, and Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart.
3. From Hannibal ad Portas, 221 no. 3: by permission of the Institut National du Patrimoine, Ministère de la Culture de la Sauvegarde du Patrimoine, Republic of Tunisia [hereafter the Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunisia], and of Theiss Verlag.
4. Freely licensed image (Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5) from Wikipedia Commons at: http://images.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Tunisise_Carthage_Tophet_Salambo_04.JPG&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tunisise_Carthage_Tophet_Salambo_04.JPG&usg=__w1I_TucezbuF7-AgxLy8CWKZrds=&h=2000&w=3008&sz=3201&hl=en&start=3&um=1&tbnid=YnoFeRmUnbjiPM:&
tbnh=100&tbnw=150&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcarthage%2Btophet%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1, retrieved 19/10/2009.