by Martin Regal
bed closet hvílugólf, lokrekkja, lokhvíla, lokrekkjugólf: A private sleeping area used for the heads of better-off households. The closet was usually partitioned off from the rest of the house, and had a door that was secured from the inside.
berserk berserkur: (Literally ‘bear-shirt’). A man who slipped or deliberately worked himself into an animal-like frenzy, which hugely increased his strength and made him apparently immune to the effect of blows from weapons. The berserks are paradoxical figures, prized as warriors and evidently regarded as having supernatural powers (perhaps bestowed on them by Odin, the god of warriors), but in the sagas this mysticism is beginning to wear off. They are often presented as stock figures, generally bullies who are none too bright, and when heroes do away with them there is usually little regret, and a great deal of local relief. Closely related to the original concept of the berserk (implied by its literal meaning) are the shape-shifters.
black Often used here to translate blár, which in modern Icelandic means only ‘blue’. The colour was a dark blue-black, often worn by saga characters setting out with murderous intentions.
bloody wound áverki: Almost always used in a legal sense, that is with regard to a visible, probably bloody wound, which could result in legal actions for compensation, or some more drastic proceedings such as the taking of revenge.
booth búð: A temporary dwelling used by those who attended the various assemblies. Structurally, it seems to have involved permanent walls which were covered by a tent-like roof, probably made of cloth.
bride-price mundur: In formal terms, this was the amount that the groom’s family gave to the bride’s. According to Icelandic law it was the personal property of the wife. See also dowry.
compensation manngjöld, bætur: Penalties imposed by the courts were of three main kinds: awards of compensation in cash; sentences of lesser outlawry, which could be lessened or dropped by the payment of compensation; and sentences of full outlawry with no chance of being moderated. In certain cases, a man’s right to immediate vengeance was recognized, but for many offences compensation was the fixed legal penalty and the injured party had little choice but to accept the settlement offered by the court, an arbitrator or a man who had been given the right to self-judgement (sjálfdæmi). It was certainly legal to put pressure on the guilty party to pay. Neither court verdicts nor legislation, nor even the constitutional arrangements, had any coercive power behind them other than the free initiative of individual chieftains with their armed following.
confiscation court féránsdómur: See ‘Social, Political and Legal Structures’, p. 221.
cross-bench pallur, pverpallur: A raised platform or bench at the inner end of the main room, where women were usually seated.
directions austur/vestur/norður/suður (east/west/north/south): These directional terms are used in a very wide sense in the sagas; they are largely dependent on context, and they cannot always be trusted to reflect compass directions. Internationally, ‘the east’ generally refers to the countries to the east and south-east of Iceland, and although ‘easterner’ usually refers to a Norwegian, it can also apply to a Swede (especially since the concept of nationality was still not entirely clear when the sagas were being written), and might even be used for a person who has picked up Russian habits. ‘The west’, or to ‘go west’, tends to refer to Ireland and what are now the British Isles, but might even refer to lands still farther afield; the point of orientation is west of Norway. When confined to Iceland, directional terms sometimes refer to the quarter to which a person is travelling, for example a man going to the Althing from the east of the country might be said to be going ‘south’ rather than ‘west’, and a person going home to the West Fjords from the Althing is said to be going ‘west’ rather than ‘north’.
dowry heimanfylgja: Literally ‘that which accompanies the bride from her home’. This was the amount of money (or land) that a bride’s father contributed at her wedding. Like the bride-price, it remained legally her property. However, the husband controlled their financial affairs and was responsible for the use to which both these assets were put.
drapa drápa: A heroic, laudatory poem, usually in the complicated metre preferred by the Icelandic poets. Such poems were in fashion between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. They were usually composed in honour of kings, earls and other prominent men, living or dead. Occasionally they were addressed to a loved one or made in praise of pagan or Christian religious figures. A drapa usually consisted of three parts: an introduction, a middle section including one or more refrains, and a conclusion. It was usually clearly distinguished from the flokk, which tended to be shorter, less laudatory and without refrains.
duel hólmganga: A formally organized duel, literally meaning ‘going to the island’. This is probably because the area prescribed for the fight formed a small ‘island’ with clearly defined boundaries, which separated the action from the outside world; it might also refer to the fact that small islands were originally favoured sites for duels. The rules included that the two duellists slashed at each other alternately, the seconds, protecting the principal fighters with shields. Shields hacked to pieces could be replaced by up to three shields on each side. If blood was shed, the fight could be ended and the wounded man could buy himself off with a ransom of three marks of silver, either on the spot or later. The rules are stated in detail in Kormak’s Saga: The duelling laws had it that the cloak was to be five ells square, with loops at the corners, and pegs had to be put in of the kind that had a head at one end. They were called tarses, and he who made the preparations was to approach the tarses in such a way that he could see the sky between his legs while grasping his ear lobes and uttering the invocation that has since been used again in the sacrifice known as the tarse sacrifice. There were to be three spaces marked out round the cloak, each a foot in breadth, and outside the marked spaces there should be four strings, named hazel poles; when that was done, what you had was a hazel-poled stretch of ground. You were supposed to have three shields, but when they were used up, you were to go on to the cloak, even if you had withdrawn from it before, and from then on you were supposed to protect yourself with weapons. He who was challenged had to strike. If one of the two was wounded in such a way that blood fell on to the cloak, there was no obligation to continue fighting. If someone put just one foot outside the hazel poles, he was said to be retreating, or to be running if he did so with both. There would be a man to hold the shield for each one of the two fighting. He who was the more wounded of the two was to release himself by paying duel ransom, to the tune of three marks of silver. (Ch. 10)
The duel was formally banned by law in Iceland in 1006, six years after the Icelanders had accepted Christianity.
earl jarl: A title generally restricted to men of high rank in northern countries (though not in Iceland), who could be independent rulers or subordinate to a king. The title could be inherited, or it could be conferred by a king on a prominent supporter or leader of military forces. The earls of Lade, who appear in a number of sagas and tales, ruled large sections of northern Norway (and often many southerly areas as well) for several centuries. Another prominent, almost independent, earldom was that of Orkney and Shetland.
east austur: See directions.
fire room eldaskáli: In literal terms, the fire room was a room or special building (as perhaps at Jarlshof in Shetland) containing a fire, and its primary function was that of a kitchen. Such a definition, however, would be too limited, since the fire room was also used for eating, working and sleeping. Indeed, in many cases the word eldaskáli seems to have been synonymous with the word skáli meaning the hall of a farm. See ‘The Farm’, p. 222.
follower hirðmaður: A member of the inner circle that surrounded the Scandinavian kings, a sworn king’s man.
foster- fóstur-, fóstri, fóstra: Children during the saga period were often brought up by foster-parents, who received either payment or support in return from the real parents. Being fostered w
as therefore somewhat different from being adopted: it was essentially a legal agreement and, more importantly, a form of alliance. None the less, emotionally, and in some cases legally, fostered children were seen as being part of the family circle. Relationships and loyalties between foster-kindred could become very strong. It should be noted that the expressions fóstri/ fóstra were also used for people who had the function of looking after, bringing up and teaching the children on the farm.
freed slave lausingi, leysingi: A slave could be set or bought free, and thus acquired the general status of a free man, although this status was low, since if he/she died with no heir, his/her inheritance would return to the original owner. The children of freed slaves, however, were completely free.
full outlawry skóggangur: Outlawry for life. One of the terms applied to a man sentenced to full outlawry was skógarmaður, which literally means ‘forest man’, even though in Iceland there was scant possibility of his taking refuge in a forest. Full outlawry simply meant banishment from civilized society, whether the local district, the province or the whole country. It also meant the confiscation of the outlaw’s property to pay the prosecutor, cover debts and sometimes provide an allowance for the dependants he had left behind. A full outlaw was to be neither fed nor offered shelter. According to one legal codex from Norway, it was ‘as if he were dead’. He had lost all goods, and all rights. Wherever he went he could be killed without any legal redress. His children became illegitimate and his body was to be buried in unconsecrated ground.
games leikar: Leikur (sing.) in Icelandic contained the same breadth of meaning as ‘game’ in English. The games meetings described in the sagas would probably have included a whole range of ‘play’ activities. Essentially, they involved men’s sports, such as wrestling, ball games, ‘skin-throwing games’, ‘scraper games’ and horse-fights. Games of this kind took place whenever people came together, and seem to have formed a regular feature of assemblies and other gatherings (including the Althing) and religious festivals such as the Winter Nights. Sometimes prominent men invited people together specifically to take part in games.
ghosts/spirits draugar, afturgöngur, haugbúar: Ghosts in medieval Scandinavia were seen as being corporeal, and thus capable of wrestling or fighting in other ways with opponents. This idea is naturally associated with the ancient pagan belief in Scandinavia and elsewhere that the dead should be buried with the possessions that they were going to need in the next life, such as ships, horses and weapons. The suggestion was that somehow the body was going to live again and need these items. There are many examples in the sagas of people encountering or seeing ‘living ghosts’ inside grave mounds. These spirits were called haugbúar (lit. ‘mound-dwellers’). Because of the fear of spirits walking again and disturbing the living, there were various measures that could be taken to ensure some degree of peace and quiet for the living. See, for example, Gisli Sursson’s Saga, Chs. 14 and 17, and The Saga of the People of Eyri, Chs. 33–4 and 63.
godi goði: This word was little known outside Iceland in early Christian times, and seems to refer to a particularly Icelandic concept. A godi was a local chieftain who had legal and administrative responsibilities in Iceland. The name seems to have originally meant ‘priest’, or at least a person having a special relationship with gods or supernatural powers, and thus shows an early connection between religious and secular power. As time went on, however, the chief function of a godi came to be secular. The first godis were chosen from the leading families who settled Iceland in c.870–930. See ‘Social, Political and Legal Structures’, p. 220.
godord goðorð: The authority and rank of a godi, including his social and legal responsibilities towards his thingmen.
halberd atgeir: Atgeir is translated as ‘halberd’, which it seems to have resembled even though no specimens of this combination of spear and axe have been found in archaeological excavations in Iceland.
hall skáli: This word was used both for large halls such as those used by kings, and for the main farmhouse on the typical Icelandic farm. See fig. 3 in ‘The Farm’, p. 222.
hayfield tún: An enclosed field for hay cultivation close to or surrounding a farmhouse. This was the only ‘cultivated’ part of a farm and produced the best hay. Other hay, generally of lesser quality, came from the meadows, which could be a good distance from the farm itself. See fig. 1 in ‘The Farm’, p. 223.
hayfield wall túngarður: A wall of stones surrounding the hayfield in order to protect it from grazing livestock. See ‘The Farm’, p. 222.
hersir hersir: A local leader in western and northern Norway, whose rank was hereditary. Originally the hersirs were probably those who took command when the men of the district were called to arms.
high seat öndvegi: The central section of one bench in the hall (at the inner end, or in the middle of the ‘senior’ side, to the right as one entered) was the rightful high seat of the owner of the farm. Even though it is usually referred to in English as the ‘high seat’, this position was not necessarily higher in elevation, only in honour. Opposite the owner sat the guest of honour.
high-seat pillars öndvegissúlur: The high seat was often adorned with decorated high-seat pillars, which had a religious significance. There are several accounts of how those emigrating from Norway to Iceland took their high-seat pillars with them. As they approached land they threw the carved wood posts overboard. It was believed that the pillars would be guided by divine forces to the place where the travellers were destined to live.
homespun (cloth) vaðmál: For centuries wool and woollen products were Iceland’s chief exports, especially in the form of strong and durable homespun cloth. It could be bought and sold in bolts or made up into items such as homespun cloaks. There were strict regulations on homespun, as it was used as a standard exchange product and often referred to in ounces, meaning its equivalent value expressed as a weight in silver. One ounce could equal three to six ells of homespun, one ell being roughly 50 cm.
hundred hundrað: A ‘long hundred’ or one hundred and twenty. The expression, however, rarely refers to an accurate number, rather a generalized ‘round’ figure.
judgement circle dómhringur: The courts of heathen times appear to have been surrounded by a judgement circle, marked out with hazel poles and ropes, where judgements were made or announced. The circle was sacrosanct, and weapons were not allowed inside it – nor was violence.
knorr knörr: An ocean-going cargo vessel.
lesser outlawry fjörbaugsgarður: Differed from full or greater outlawry in that the lesser outlaw was banished from society for only three years. Furthermore, his land was not confiscated, and money was put aside to support his family. This made it possible for him to return later and continue a normal life. Fjörbaugsgarður means literally ‘life-ring enclosure’. ‘Life-ring’ refers to the silver ring that the outlaw originally had to pay the godi in order to spare his life. (This was later fixed at a value of one mark.) ‘Enclosure’ refers to three sacrosanct homes no more than one day’s journey from each other where the outlaw was permitted to stay while he arranged passage out of Iceland. He was allowed limited movement along the tracks directly joining these farms, and en route to the ship that would take him abroad. Anywhere else the outlaw was fair game and could be killed without redress. He had to leave the country and begin his sentence within the space of three summers after the verdict, but once abroad regained normal rights.
longship langskip: The largest warship.
magic rite seiður: The exact nature of magic ritual, or seiður, is somewhat obscure. It appears that it was originally a ceremony that was only practised by women. Even though there are several accounts of males who performed this (including the god Odin), they are almost always looked down on as having engaged in an ‘effeminate’ activity. The magic rite seems to have had two main purposes: a spell to influence people or the elements (as in Gisli Sursson’s Saga, Ch. 18), and a means of finding out about the future. There are evidently para
llels between seiður and shamanistic rituals such as those carried out by the Lapps and Native Americans.
main room stofa: A room off the hall of a farmhouse. See also ‘The Farm’, p. 222.
mark mörk: A measurement of weight, eight ounces, approximately 214 grams.
Moving Days fardagar: Four successive days in the seventh week of ‘summer’ (in May) on which householders in Iceland could change their abode.
north norður: See directions.
ounce, ounces eyrir, pl. aurar: A unit of weight, varying slightly through time, but roughly 27 grams. Eight ounces were equal to one mark.
outlawry útlegð, skóggangur, fjörbaugsgarður: Two of the Icelandic words, útlegð, literally meaning ‘lying, or sleeping, outside’, and skóggangur, ‘forest-walking’, stress the idea of the outlaw having been ejected from the safe boundaries of civilized society and being forced to live in the wild, alongside the animals and nature spirits, little better than an animal himself. The word útlagi (‘outlaw’) is closely related to útlegð, but has also taken on the additional meaning of ‘outside the law’, which for early Scandinavians was synonymous with ‘lying outside society’. Law was what made society. See also full outlawry and lesser outlawry.
quarter fjórðungur: Administratively, Iceland was divided into four quarters based on the four cardinal directions. See ‘Social, Political and Legal Structures’, p. 220.
sacrifice, sacrificial feast blót: There is great uncertainty about the nature of pagan worship and cult-activities in Scandinavia, and just as the theology and mythology of the Nordic peoples seem to have varied according to area, it is highly questionable whether any standardized rules of ritual practice ever existed there. It should also be remembered that the population of Iceland came from all over Scandinavia, as well as from Ireland and the islands off Scotland. Religion was very much an individual matter, and practices varied. The few references to sacrifices in the sagas are somewhat vague, but these sometimes seem to have involved the ritual slaughter of animals.