Contents
Introduction
PART I: From the Beginning Through the “Golden Age”
1 - Bossen Bouwerie
2 - A Magnet for Misfits
3 - The First Bohemians
4 - The Restless Nineties
5 - The Bohemians’ Neighbors
6 - The “Golden Age” Begins
7 - 1913
8 - The Provincetown Players
Photo Section 1
9 - The Golden Age Wanes
10 - The Next Wave
PART II: The Dry Decade, the Red Decade, World War II
11 - The Prohibition Years
12 - The Coney Island of the Soul
13 - The Red Decade
14 - The Wrong Place for the Right People
Photo Section 2
15 - Swag Was Our Welfare
PART III: The Greenwich Village Renaissance
16 - A Refuge in the Age of Anxiety
17 - The “New York School”
18 - Duchamp, Cage, and the Theory of Pharblongence
19 - Bebop
20 - The Beat Generation
21 - Pull My Daisy
22 - Village Voices
23 - Standing Up to Moses and the Machine
24 - Off-Off-Broadway
Photo Section 3
25 - The Folk Music Scene
26 - From Folk to Rock
27 - Lenny Bruce and Valerie Solanas
28 - The Radical ’60s
29 - The Lion’s Head
PART IV: The Last Hurrah
30 - Prelude to the Stonewall Uprising
31 - Stonewall
32 - Village Celebrities of the 1970s
Photo Section 4
33 - After Stonewall
34 - Art in the Junkyard
35 - The 1980s and AIDS
Epilogue
Acknowledgments
Notes
Bibliography
Index
About the Author
Also by John Strausbaugh
Credits
Copyright
About the Publisher
Introduction
AMERICA WAS ONE THING AND GREENWICH VILLAGE ANOTHER.
—Ronald Sukenick
“YOU COULD SIT ON A BAR STOOL AND LOOK OUT OF THE WINDOWS to the snowy streets and see heavy people going by, David Amram bundled up,” Bob Dylan writes of his early ’60s Greenwich Village days in Chronicles. Half a century later, you can sit in one of the open-front cafés along Cornelia Street and still see Amram, now in his eighties and looking anything but heavy, striding up the middle of the quiet block. Gray curls halo his face. He wears a dark suit, dark shirt, and polka-dot tie, with rings on many fingers and a few pounds of necklaces, amulets, and medallions dangling and clanging from his neck. One of his daughters gave him the first few, and he added more as talismans representing his travels. The overall effect is of a hip Jewish shaman. He carries his French horn in one hand and in the other cloth bags stuffed with more instruments—pennywhistles, a tambourine, exotic flutes from China and the Native American West, an Egyptian doumbek. When asked where his roadie is, he says, “I’m my own roadie. It keeps me fit.” Smiling, buoyant, full of what they used to call pep, he radiates a kind of spiritual fitness as well, an unalloyed joy to be in the world, making music in it, tending the flame of jazz and Beat spontaneity. It’s contagious. Just standing near him peps you up too.
He’s got a gig tonight, down in the narrow basement cabaret of Cornelia Street Cafe. He’s got a gig somewhere most every night; he’s been in perpetual motion for decades. He returns to the café periodically to split whatever’s collected at the door with his quartet because, he says, he wants to keep a connection alive, an ethos he remembers animating the Village in the mid-1950s. It’s not about money. “I don’t think Saint Francis had a big stock portfolio, but nobody would say he was a failure,” he says. “It’s about spirit and conduct and morality and standards.”
Amram is a composer of jazz, orchestral music, opera, film, and theater scores (the original Manchurian Candidate, Splendor in the Grass). He’s a multi-instrumentalist (piano, brass, reeds, flutes, percussion, much else) and comfortable in musical forms from many eras and cultures. The instant he arrived in the Village, in 1955, he started playing in the clubs. He soon met and befriended Jack Kerouac, who’d become one of its most famous, if only part-time, denizens. Amram’s written three memoirs: Offbeat, Upbeat, and Vibrations. He has a genius for singing old-school scat and performing extemporaneous rap, both of which he and Kerouac performed together. Tonight’s program is part concert, part history lecture. He calls it “55 Years in Greenwich Village,” but it might also be titled “Around the World in Eighty Years.” He and his combo play old standards in new ways—jazz pennywhistle, jazz glockenspiel. He sings a Native American song, then scats the theme song he wrote for Pull My Daisy, the 1959 film featuring Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, Peter Orlovsky, and Larry Rivers. He turns his audience into a syncopated, hand-clapping rhythm section. Between songs he tells stories from the Village of the 1950s and from around the world. He explains how he sees all creativity coming from one great source, a world soul he believes can resist the deadening assaults of modern corporate conformism.
Amram knows this is an anachronistic message to deliver in the Greenwich Village of the twenty-first century, so different from the Village he first came to in 1955. Thanks to historic preservation, much of it looks more or less the same. Its famously meandering streets are still lined with charming nineteenth-century homes and storefronts. Its nightlife zone around the intersection of MacDougal and Bleecker Streets is still packed with young fun seekers every weekend. But much else has changed.
The Village in the mid-1950s saw an intense explosion of creative activity. It was a culture engine—a zone that attracts and nurtures creative people, radicals, visionaries, misfits, life adventurers. Coming together in one place they collide, collaborate, fuse, and feud like energetic particles in an accelerator, creating work and developing ideas that change the culture of the world. When the playwright Paul Foster speaks at the end of this book about a creative zeitgeist he means the same thing. Classical Athens was a culture engine, and Elizabethan London, and Paris and Berlin in the 1920s. Greenwich Village was a remarkably productive culture engine for as long as or longer than any of these fabled places.
From its start as a rural frontier of New Amsterdam in the 1600s, it was a place for outcasts. Among its first nonnative residents were “half free” African slaves whom the Dutch strung out on small plots of land as a buffer and early-warning system in event of an Indian attack. The Village would remain the center of the black community in Manhattan through the 1800s, home to the first successful black theater and black newspapers in the country. By 1800 it was the site of Newgate Prison, in effect the first Sing Sing, and a refuge when epidemics flashed through the city. Washington Square Park began as a burial ground for plague victims and a place to hang criminals. Tom Paine, the most effective rhetorician of the American Revolution, was an old and forgotten misfit when he died there in 1809. Edgar Allan Poe, misfit of all misfits, became famous for “The Raven” while living there. Walt Whitman’s poetry was universally condemned and despised when he found his first sympathetic audiences in Greenwich Village in the 1850s, amid the first bohemian scene in the city.
The Village’s “golden age” as the Left Bank of America flowered in the 1910s. Emma Goldman, Margaret Sanger, Eugene O’Neill, Djuna Barnes, Mabel Dodge, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Hart Crane, Theodore Dreiser, John Reed, Marcel Duchamp, Upton Sinclair, and Willa Cather were among the set of remarkable individuals who put the Village on the leading edge of culture, politics, and social movements in those years. With
a speakeasy on every corner during the Prohibition 1920s, the Village cemented its still active reputation as a party destination, as well as an unusually tolerant zone for gays and lesbians. In the Red Decade of the 1930s the Village was a hotbed of leftist politics and culture.
New York City was on its way to becoming the culture capital of the Western world when Amram arrived in the mid-1950s, and much of what was lifting it to that position was happening in and around the Village: Abstract Expressionism, Off- and Off-Off-Broadway theater, bebop, the Beats, avant-garde filmmaking, the early glimmerings of the folk music revival that drew Dylan and his cohort. The Village Voice appeared the year Amram arrived in the neighborhood. Grove Press had recently published the first U.S. edition of Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. In 1955 Greenwich Village was a magnet for nonconformists, people who felt like outsiders elsewhere in Eisenhower’s America; it was one tiny corner of American real estate where artists, writers, intellectuals, gays, lesbians, and psychological and sexual adventurers could feel at home. It was the bohemian capital of the East Coast. Amram and Kerouac shared it with Pollock and de Kooning, Maya Deren and Anaïs Nin, Marcel Duchamp and John Cage, Norman Mailer and Edward Albee, Charlie Parker and W. H. Auden, Woody Guthrie and James Baldwin, James Agee and William Gaddis, Maurice Sendak and Dawn Powell.
In the 1960s the Village was the launchpad for Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, and many other folk and rock acts, and in the early 1970s it was the refuge to which John Lennon fled after the Beatles broke up. The gay liberation movement simmered in the Village through the 1960s and exploded with the Stonewall riots in 1969, making the Village the gay and lesbian center of the world in the 1970s. It was also the East Coast epicenter of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s.
Greenwich Village was home to large working-class communities of Italians and Irish as well. It was the site of the Triangle Shirtwaist fire in 1911, one of the saddest events in the city’s history. Three of the most colorful mayors of the twentieth century came out of the Village: the charming and lackadaisical Jimmy Walker, the indefatigable Fiorello La Guardia—both natives—and Ed “How’m I doing?” Koch, who moved to the Village as an adult. Heavyweight champion Gene Tunney, the Bard of Biff, was a Village native, as was Vincent “Chin” Gigante, the Daffy Don of the Genovese Mafia family, as were the gangsters who inspired On the Waterfront. This population coexisted with Henry James’s genteel, patrician Greenwich Village, north of Washington Square, home to some of the oldest and richest families in the city.
The artists, radicals, and misfits drawn to the Village for all those years were always a small and transient minority, though a highly visible and vocal one. They could be as extremist in their behavior as in their art and politics, which didn’t always endear them to their neighbors. They often came to the Village as “voluntary exiles,” as Michael Harrington wrote, escaping what they felt were the restrictions and burdensome expectations of middle- or upper-class backgrounds. In the decades before every college campus was a node of an international counterculture, when gay and lesbian life was tightly closeted, when just wanting to make art or literature was a sign of abnormality, Greenwich Village was a crumb of the American social landscape where they felt free to live according to what they believed were their true natures. Inevitably some of them turned that liberty into libertinage. Exploring beyond the bounds of traditional social behavior and contemporary morals, they drank prodigiously, soaked up drugs, and threw nonstop orgies. William Burroughs once asked, “What happens when there is no limit? What is the fate of The Land Where Anything Goes?” Many, including Burroughs, sought the answers in Greenwich Village, the Neighborhood Where Anything Went, even though to do so was to court self-destruction. The history of Greenwich Village is littered with the corpses of those who drank themselves to creative ruin or death, overdosed on various drugs, committed alcohol- or drug-fueled murder or suicide, or partied themselves into oblivion. Their excesses could be heroic, despicable, or just ridiculous. In Village lore self-destruction was often revered as martyrdom. Though this seems misguided, we should resist judging the extremists too harshly by the very standards they intentionally, even conscientiously, flouted.
In the 1990s and 2000s Manhattan took the Village along when it renovated and repurposed itself as a magnet for wealthy tourists and residents. It is now more a place of recreation than creation, more occupied with preserving history than making it. The old Greenwich Village, the culture engine, exists now mainly in the memories of survivors such as David Amram. Many of them speak with bitter nostalgia about the changes. A few are more philosophical. The culture engine may return to the Village in some new form someday; the death of the arty-bohemian Village has been declared prematurely many times in the past. Indeed, every generation who misspent their youth there declared it over by the time they’d grown out of it. Today it does seem dead. There are various reasons for that, but one of the most significant, as in almost any story you can tell about Manhattan, is the price of real estate. Making culture and making a living rarely go together in America. The artists and bohemians who made the Village famous “came here,” as Villager Floyd Dell wrote, “because the rents were cheap.” Certainly not all of them fit the profile of the starving artist but many did. As a function of Manhattan’s transformation in recent decades, the rents in Greenwich Village have soared. It’s now a magnet for millionaires, not misfits.
A WELL-KNOWN CLICHÉ DURING ITS TWENTIETH-CENTURY HEYDAY was that Greenwich Village wasn’t a place but a state of mind. For decades it wasn’t even called Greenwich Village; it was known by its political divisions, the Ninth and Fifteenth Wards. Maybe that’s why people have always been a bit vague about its geography and borders. Only its western border at the Hudson River waterfront is undisputed. (For convenience we speak as though Manhattan lies on a north-south, east-west axis, the way it looks on a subway map. In truth it leans distinctly to the right, with the southern tip pointing southwest and the northern tip northeast.)
Most people consider Fourteenth Street its northern edge, though Djuna Barnes, always good for an argument, insisted that the Village went no farther up than West Twelfth Street. Today, everyone considers Houston Street the southern border of Greenwich Village. But that’s a relatively recent development. Before the 1970s the area down to Canal Street on the Hudson side of Sixth Avenue was generally known as the South Village. (Barnes went to extremes here as well, claiming that the Village extended all the way down to the Battery, where it “commits suicide.”) In the 1960s, artists began colonizing the abandoned cast-iron loft buildings along Broadway below Houston, an area that had been known as Hell’s Hundred Acres for all the garment industry fires there. In 1968 they formed their own neighborhood association and named the area Soho (South of Houston). And so the South Village came to be considered part of Soho, even though it remained much more like the rest of the Village—narrow streets, older housing stock, and a largely Italian and Portuguese population. In the 2000s the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation has campaigned to revive the name and idea of the South Village in an effort to get some of its buildings landmarked and preserved.
The Village’s eastern border is the most vague. In his book Republic of Dreams, Ross Wetzsteon plotted the Village all the way over to Bowery/Third Avenue. At the opposite extreme, the ever feisty Barnes argued that “the Village does not run past Sixth Avenue.” She considered only the bohemian and working-class areas, the old Ninth Ward, the true Village, with Washington Square and the streets above and below it a separate place. It wasn’t a bad argument; physically and culturally there were notable differences between the patrician streets along lower Fifth Avenue and the more downmarket jumble west of Sixth. But most people include the Washington Square zone as part of Greenwich Village, and as the whole neighborhood has climbed upmarket over the last few decades the class separations of Djuna Barnes’s time have disappeared.
For the past few decades the thin strip of mostly commercial stock between Broadway
and the Bowery has been called Noho, forming a kind of buffer zone between the West and East Villages. That makes sense. So, in this book, Greenwich Village runs from the Hudson waterfront over to Broadway, and from Fourteenth Street down to Houston Street east of Sixth Avenue; west of Sixth, a bit of a South Village tail pokes down.
How did this tiny and vaguely defined corner of Manhattan come to play such a large and distinct role in Western culture? The history of Greenwich Village, like the history of New York City as a whole, is fantastically deep, layered, fragmented, and fractal. It goes back roughly four hundred years and starts before the Village was a village.
PART I
From the Beginning Through the “Golden Age”
1
Bossen Bouwerie
GREENWICH VILLAGE WAS A ZONE OF ROGUES AND OUTCASTS from the start.
In 1640 the population of New Amsterdam, a rough outpost of the Dutch West India Company, was fewer than five hundred people, but it was astonishingly diverse, “the motliest assortment of souls in Christendom,” including Dutch and Walloons, French, Swedish, English, Germans, “one Cicero Alberto (known around town as ‘the Italian’),” and a Muslim mulatto. The first Jews would arrive in 1654. Predominantly male, more employee than citizen, the residents were tough, contentious, and often drunk—drinking and whoring were the chief entertainments, and taverns occupied a quarter of the town’s buildings. New York’s enduring reputation as a wide-open party town goes back to its founding.
Today’s Bowery follows the original track that ran out from the small settlement at the southern tip of Manhattan to bouweries (farms) like Peter Stuyvesant’s on the east side. It remained an unpaved and lonely country turnpike into the nineteenth century. On the west side, roughly two miles north of town, was an area the Dutch called Noortwyck. It was a mix of marshland, meadow, swamp, and woods, punctuated by a few hills, its soil sandy and loamy. Through it wandered a trout stream the natives called Minetta (Spirit Water), which to the Dutch became Mintje Kill (Little Stream), to the English Minetta Brook. It wound a path down through then-swampy Washington Square and took a downward diagonal to the Hudson.
The Village Page 1