At 14:00 that afternoon, the combined force left the city, marching in the direction of Verona, arriving there the next day. Their appearance guaranteed the safety of this key position. The rapidity with which D’Aspre made, and then carried out his decision may have saved the army. Once in Verona, he also reinforced the garrisons of Mantua, Legnano, and Peschiera.
Verona (pop. 52,000)
The headquarters of Division Prince Hannibal Taxis, Verona was probably the least volatile of the major Lombard-Venetian cities. Since 1815, always a main garrison town for the Imperial Army, many ex-officers settled here with their families, and a good number of the nobility were satisfied with the status quo. This also applied to much of the populace of both the city, and the region. Nevertheless, there was a revolutionary movement in Verona, if not an overwhelming one.
Three and a third battalions, a battery, four pioneer companies, and two squadrons made up the garrison. The Viceroy was also present, having, as discussed, come to the city from Milan so as to be more in rapid telegraphic communication with Vienna. As the tidings had reached the city on the 17th, at the same time as Archduke Rainier, the nationalist community became restless. The next day, feelings became clearer.
The revolutionaries demanded, and were granted permission for, a National Guard, though only numbering 400 men. They further insisted upon the garrison withdrawing from several of the city’s forts. This, the Fortress Commander, FML Gerhardi, entirely rejected, graphically waving his arm towards the mortars on the walls of the castle. The mood soured over the next few days, as troops began to occupy strategic points. Before the situation deteriorated any further, however, on March 27th, FML D’Aspre arrived with his column from Padua, removing any possibility of a successful revolt. The National Guard was immediately suppressed. The city itself rapidly returned to normal. It is not by any means certain that without these reinforcements, Verona would have fallen to the revolutionaries. Nevertheless,D’Aspre’s commendable foresight had guaranteed the fortress’s safety, and paid a major dividend.
Parma (pop. 36,000 – 493,000 in the whole Duchy)
The Duchy of Parma, nominally allied with the Empire, had its own military forces, and a small Austrian presence, in the form of a four company Combined Battalion of IR Archduke Franz d’Este, commanded by Captain von Torri, and one squadron of Reuss Hussars. News of the revolution in Milan reached the duchy on March 20th, prompting immediate demonstrations in the city of Parma, and fighting soon broke out. The Grand Duke made immediate concessions to the insurgents, and the Austrian force therefore evacuated the city on the following day, moving towards Mantua, having had three men wounded. Upon the declaration of war by Piedmont, the Duchy rapidly allied itself with Carlo Alberto. Torri was unlucky, however, as he was unable to find a way across the River Po. After languishing for some days, his troops, short of supplies, were forced to surrender.
Modena (28,000 – 493,000 in the whole Duchy)
Like Parma, the much smaller Duchy of Modena was ruled by a pro-Austrian Grand Duke. It also had a token Austrian garrison in the capital, II/IR Archduke Franz d’Este. Here, however, upon the first rumblings of discontent, the Duke, Francesco V, fled to Vienna. A Provisional Government was immediately established. The Austrian force withdrew, as with the troops from Parma, towards Mantua. Two other companies of the regiment, stationed in Reggio nell’Emilia, half way between Modena and Parma, joined the column on its march north. They would play a key role upon reaching their destination. Modena, too, quickly became an ally of the Piedmontese, though there proved to be less enthusiasm in the Duchy than in Parma.
_______________________
1
Thayer, William Roscoe, The Dawn of Italian Independence, Boston and New York 1894, Vol. II, pp. 112-113. There were also some 20,000 people in the city’s suburbs.
2
Fabris, Gli Avenimenti Militari del 1848 e 1849, Part 1, p. 142.
3
Bruna, Josef, Im Heere Radetzky’s, pp. 8-9.
4
Hilleprandt, ‘1848’, ÖMZ 1865, Vol. I, p. 37, Grüll, pp. 13-14. Helfert, who was in Milan, mistakenly attributes the troops to IR Reisinger.
5
Ibid, p. 37.
6
Fischer, Friedrich von, “Die Einnahme des Municipalpalastes (genannt Broletto) in Mailand am 18. März 1848”, ÖMZ, 1860, Vol. I, pp. 34-35.
7
Lecchi had been a division commander in the army of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy.
8
Treuenfest, Gustav Ritter Amon von, Geschichte des k.k. Infanterie-Regiments Nr. 18 Constantin Grossfürst von Russland, pp. 474-475.
9
Pieri, Storia militare, p. 189, says 1,650.
10
Torelli, pp. 138-139.
11
Molden, Radetzky. Sein Leben und sein Wirken, p. 53. The Marshal had, in January, informed the President of the Imperial War Committee that any retreat from Milan could only happen over his “… dead body”. He had clearly changed his mind. See Sked, p. 121.
12
Kriegsbegebenheiten 1848, Part 1, pp. 45-46.
13
Torelli, pp. 144-145.
14
Hilleprandt ‘1848’, ÖMZ, 1865, Vol. 1, pp. 29-30, and Ulloa, Girolamo, Guerre de L’Indépendance Italienne en 1848 et en 1849, Vol. I, p.40.
15
Le Masson, Venise en 1848 et 1849, p. 61, states the time as about 21;00. This is most unlikely.
16
Marchesi, p. 109.
17
Treuenfest, Infanterie-Regimentes Nr. 47, p. 565.
18
Grüll, p. 68, and Helfert, Aus Böhmen …, p. 203. Boinek, p. 94, says four killed and 27 wounded.
19
Ibid, p. 68, mentions “… only 50 men …”.
20
The deeply unpopular Marinović was the one relatively senior official who might have given some spine to the authorities through this period. For details of his killing, see Trevelyan, pp. 101-105, and Flagg, Vol. I, pp. 362-366.
21
Boinek, p. 78, opines that the murder of Marinović and the loss of the Arsenal were the real catastrophe.
22
Admiral Martini, Major Buday, and three junior officers would remain prisoners until July, Boinek, p. 109.
23
Radaelli, pp. 51-53.
24
Grüll, pp. 70-71, Ulloa, Vol I, pp. 61-62, and Boinek, pp. 86-87.
25
Radaelli, p. 79, and Contarini, p. 11.
26
Pimodan, Souvenirs des Campagnes d’Italie et de Hongrie, pp. 28-37 – quote on p. 30.
27
Kober, Guido Baron von, ‘Eine Pulverthurmewache’, Unter Habsburgs Kriegsbanner Vol. IV, 1899, pp.94-99. On May 14th, 1848, Gornick was awarded the Silver Medal for Bravery, First Class.
28
Boinek, pp. 159-160. The total for IR Kinsky appears very high, and may perhaps include the non-Italian officers of the other units. If not, these were clearly transported separately, some perhaps with Counts Palffy and Zichy.
29
Errera, Daniele Manin e Venezia, 1804-1853, p. 269. Radaelli, who was present, however, says 20,000 muskets, p. 51. Mistrali, Vol II, p. 119, speaks of 36,000 weapons, but as he also mentions 1,000 cannon (too high, in any case), it is clear that he is referring to the entire lagoon. Note, as discussed, that many weapons had already been distributed.
30
Ulloa, Vol. I, p 70, where he also states that many later joined the Civic Guard or Gendarmerie. Certainly, some men, finding their home districts also in revolt, did join local volunteer forces. See also Marchesi, pp. 136-137, and Sardagna. Solera himself resigned on April 1st, with Paolucci taking on the portfolio.
31
Foramiti, Storia dell’Assedio di Venezia 1848-1849, pp. 41-42, and Contarini, Sunto storico-critico degli Avvenimenti di Venezia e sue province dal Marzo 1848 all Agosto 1849, pp. 17-18, and Raccolta per ordine cronologico di
tutti gli atti, decreti, nomine (etc.)…del Governo provisorio di Venezia, Vol. VII, 1849. p 173. The Venetian Bandiera brothers were nationalist followers of Mazzini, who in 1844, with Domenico Moro, were executed after an attempted rebellion in Calabria against the King of the Two-Sicilies.
32
Grüll, p. 48.
33
Fabris, Vol. I, pp. 178-179, describes the Prohaska companies as reinforcements; see Archivio triennale, Vol III, p. 46. Kriegsbegenheiten 1848, Part 1, p. 48, however, refers to them as part of the Como Garrison. In either case, they were not in the city on the 18th.
34
The remaining two companies of this battalion, garrisoning Pizzeghetonne, deserted.
35
Strack, p. 58.
36
Venosta, Felice, I Martiri della Rivoluzione, p. 398.
37
Staeger von Waldburg, Eduard, Ereignisse in der Festung Mantua während der Revolutions-Epoche des Jahres 1848, p. 10.
38
Hilleprandt, ‘1848’, pp. 159-160.
3
Opposing Forces 1848
KINGDOM OF SARDINIA
ARMY1
The Kingdom of Sardinia, comprising that island, the mainland provinces, and the principality of Monaco (as a protectorate), had a population of 4,630,368 in 1847. Its army and navy were recruited by a combination of voluntary service and conscription, and in the latter case, substitution was allowed. Conscription, however, did not apply in Sardinia. The Kingdom’s army, the best in the peninsula, was also the only one capable of inflicting a major military defeat on the Austrians. Carlo Alberto certainly had by far the best army of the Italian states. It possessed a fine tradition, the military academy in Turin having been founded in 1739. Upon Carlo Alberto’s accession to the throne in 1831, one of his earliest undertakings was a series of reforms to the Army, which continued into the 1840’s.
Recruitment to the army occurred in two ways. Conscription was in force throughout the Kingdom, except on the island of Sardinia itself, and liability for service started at the age of 16. Volunteers, called ‘Ordinance’ soldiers, were recruited for eight years, and were then free of any further obligation to serve. Conscripts, ‘Provincial’ troops, were enlisted for three years, but in the infantry, generally only served 14 months, and then were discharged. They were, however, liable to further service, in varying situations, up to the age of 36. Substitutes were allowed to be used.
By an order of 22nd March 1848, the Army was grouped into two Army Corps, each of two divisions, and also an independent Reserve Division. Lieutenant-General Baron Eusebio Bava was to command I Corps, and Lieutenant-General Count Ettore De Sonnaz, II Corps. The Reserve Division was to be led by the King’s eldest son, the Duke of Savoy. Of the army itself, Rüstow, a harsh judge, describes the Piedmontese troops as, “… on the whole good …”2
Infantry
In March 1848, the infantry comprised ten brigades; one of the Guards, and nine of the Line. Each brigade was commanded by a major-general. In addition, there were (from April) two independent battalions of Bersaglieri, and a battalion of Naval Infantry (see Navy). Apart from the Bersaglieri, the mainstay weapon of the infantry was the M. 1844 smoothbore percussion musket, in 17.5 mm. calibre.
Guards
The Guards Brigade was composed of the Grenadier Regiment, and the Cacciatori Regiment. The Guard Grenadier Regiment, which had the unique position of finding the guard for the Royal Palace in Turin, had four active battalions, each of four companies, and a depot battalion. The regimental staff, on a war footing, totalled 28 officers and 79 men, and the battalion, 15. A company numbered one captain, one lieutenant, two second-lieutenants, one quartermaster-sergeant, four sergeants, one quartermaster-corporal, four corporals, eight lance-corporals, two drummers, 31 Ordinance soldiers, and 170 Provincials, a total strength of 225.
M. 1844 Smoothbore Percussion Musket
The Guard Cacciatori Regiment was unique, in that it was composed exclusively from volunteer Ordinance soldiers from Sardinia. It had three active battalions, of four companies each, and one depot. The regimental staff numbered 22 officers and 63 men. A cacciatori company consisted of one captain, one lieutenant, 1 second-lieutenant, one quartermaster-sergeant, four sergeants, one quarterrmaster-corporal, four corporals, four lance-corporals, two drummers, one trumpeter, and 150 men,
Line Infantry
Each Line Brigade, which bore the name of its recruiting district, was composed of two regiments, which in turn had three field and one depot battalions apiece. A full strength regiment in the field would have a total strength of 2,768, plus the Depot Battalion of 620. In practice, no units even approached this theoretical establishment. The glib assertion by Della Rocca that infantry companies were at full strength in April is not borne out by the figures. The Regimental Staff totalled 23 officers, with an additional 62 men (the latter not included in the total figure). The regiments were consecutively numbered from 1 to 18.
All infantry battalions were composed of four companies. The 1st Battalion contained the 1st Grenadier, and 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Fusilier companies, and the 2nd Battalion, the 2nd Grenadier, and 4th, 5th, and 6th Fusilier companies. The 3rd Battalion was composed of the four Cacciatori companies. The 4th (Depot) Battalion consisted of the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th Fusilier companies.
On a War Footing, at the beginning of the 1848 campaign, each 1st Battalion had a total strength of 938, and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions, 915. The battalion staff numbered 15, and each company 225. A company comprised one captain, one lieutenant, two second-lieutenants, one quartermaster-sergeant, four sergeants, one quartermaster-corporal, four corporals, eight lance-corporals, two drummers, 25 Ordinance privates, and 176 Provincial privates.
M. 1844 Bersaglieri Rifled Carbine
Bersaglieri
A new corps of elite light infantry, the Bersaglieri, had been organised, at the behest of then Captain Alessandro La Marmora, in 1836. By the outbreak of war, in March 1848, the corps had grown from one company to a battalion of four companies, the companies numbered 1-4. A second battalion was organised at the beginning of the campaign, and to confuse matters, the companies renumbered. Where necessary, this will be mentioned in the text. The battalion staff numbered five, and a company, 224. A company consisted of one captain, one lieutenant, two second-lieutenants, one quartermaster-sergeant, four sergeants, one corporal-trumpeter, six corporals, 12 lance-corporals, one armourer, 75 Ordinance privates, and 120 Provincial privates. These troops were armed with a unique weapon, the specially commissioned M. 1844 rifled carbine, in 16mm calibre. A newer model appeared during 1848.
Cavalry
The cavalry consisted of 6 regiments, each of six squadrons. Each regiment had a staff of 20 officers and 40 men, and a squadron consisted of one captain, one lieutenant, one second-lieutenant, two junior lieutenants, one quartermaster, six sergeants, one senior brigadier, six brigadiers, six under-brigadiers, seven appointees, two trumpeters, 87 Ordinance troopers, and 44 Provincial troopers, plus one farrier, and one saddler. The squadron thus had 167 men, with 150 horses. With this total of 1,128 men, went 47 officer and 912 troop horses. Cavalry regiments bore the name of their recruiting district. These were the regiments of Nizza, Royal Piedmont, Genoa, Novara, Savoy, and Aosta.
Artillery
The Artillery arm of service was possibly the best in the army, both in terms of personnel and equipment. Schönhals describes the personnel as, “…picked men, under good and well-informed officers.” The Corps of Artillery was composed of the Fortress Artillery and the Mobile Artillery. The former numbered two brigades, and the latter, five, these being one of Horse Artillery, three of Field Artillery, and one of Position Artillery. Each brigade comprised three batteries, each of eight guns. The brigades are described below.
Horse Artillery
The Horse Artillery brigade was equipped with 8 pounder cannon, and 15 pound howitzers. Each of the three batteries possessed six of the former, and two of the l
atter. These batteries comprised one captain, two lieutenants, one second-lieutenant, one quartermaster, six sergeants, one quartermaster corporal, 12 corporals, two specialists, two trumpeters, one saddler, one farrier, 24 gunners first class, and 164 gunners second class, with 210 horses.
Field Artillery
The three Field Artillery brigades were also equipped with 8 pounder cannon, and 15 pound howitzers. Each battery had six cannon and two howitzers. A battery was composed of one captain, two lieutenants, one second-lieutenant, one quartermaster, six sergeants, one quartermaster corporal, 12 corporals, two specialists, two trumpeters, one saddler, one farrier, 10 gunners first class, and 160 gunners second class, with 140 horses.
Position Artillery
The Position Artillery Brigade was equipped with 16 pounder cannon, and 15 pound howitzers. Its three batteries each had six cannon and two howitzers. The table of organisation for personnel and animals for each battery was identical with that of the Field Artillery. A Fourth Position Battery was formed during the campaign.
Fortress Artillery
The two Fortress Artillery Brigades, each commanded by a lieutenant-colonel, were divided into six companies apiece. Each company was composed of four officers and one hundred NCOs and men.
Engineers
The Royal Corps of Engineers, commanded by a Major-General, consisted of 30 officers. There was one battalion of Sappers, which consisted of one company of miners, and three companies of sappers. The wartime strength of the battalion was 707 officers and men.
Radetzky's Marches Page 7