Objectives – Lunette XIII, and Bastion VI
Troops
II Styrian Schützen Battalion
Landwehr/IR Schönhals
Landwehr/IR Mazzucchelli
One Pioneer Company
One miner detachment
Three rocket tubes
20 artillerymen
2 engineer officers
The Evacuation of Fort Marghera, May 26th 1849 (contemporary lithograph)
Brigade Kerpan: to advance along the left bank of the channel
Objectives
The curtain walls between Bastions VI and VII. Lunette XIV, and Fort Man Manin
Troops
I, II, and Landwehr/IR Koudelka
A sapper detachment with an officer
A miner detachment with an officer
A pioneer detachment with an officer
Two rocket tubes
As seen, however, these preparations proved unnecessary. Between 01:00 and 02:00, a patrol of II/Styrian Schützen Battalion approached the glacis of Lunette 13. They were greeted by canister fire, which wounded one man. However, when there was no further sound, Unterjägers Raab and Hermannsdorfer moved on, finding the fort empty, and discovered that they had been fired upon by one of the already primed guns. They returned with a tricolour flag as a trophy, and evidence. By 06:00, Marghera was secured, and under the control of Major-General Wolter. All of the works were soon filled with curious officers and men.
Not only the defences on the mainland were abandoned, but so also was the island of San Giuliano, which was indefensible on its own. Here, the garrison of 50 Hungarians, two companies of Cacciatori del Sile, and some artillerymen, seized by panic, fled to Venice, leaving their commander, Major Sirtori, with only a dozen men. The major, before evacuating the island, set a mine in a magazine. After the first Austrians appeared on the island, some of whom swam across, the mine exploded, killing four officers and more than 20 men.33
Imperial losses for the four days totalled six officers and 99 men killed, seven officers and 229 men wounded, and 17 men missing. A third of those killed, died in the explosion in Fort San Giuliano. Casualties amongst the defenders are given as 100 killed and 300 wounded.34 In the ruins of the various works were found a total of 137 pieces of ordnance, 38 of them useless, along with 33 quintals of powder.
The battle for Marghera had effectively lasted a month. Carrano, understandably, compared it favourably to the sieges of the past, from the Marlburian Wars up to and including that of Peschiera the previous year. Although the abandonment of the fort before any serious siege should probably have been undertaken, politically, it would have been impossible to do so, as neither the soldiers nor the populace would have tolerated it. As noted, even the modest attempt by General Paolucci to conserve ammunition cost him his command, and nearly his life. The battle had to be fought, even though it was inevitable that it would be lost.
Count Thurn, in closing his report to the Minister of War, wrote,
Now that Fort Malghera is ours, and the difficult works of siege are over, I am obliged to praise the besieging Corps for its excellent work. The men demonstrated their courage, tenacity, and perseverance. They were not discouraged, neither by the many dangers nor the very hard work, mostly undertaken under terrible weather conditions.35
Chaos in Central Italy
Papal States
As the Imperial noose tightened around Venice, the situation in the Papal States had gone from bad to worse. After the murder of Pellegrino Rossi, and the flight of Pius IX to Gaeta late the previous year, Rome and the Papal lands had been in more or less constant turmoil. From the safety of King Ferdinando’s protection, Pius had bombarded Rome with demands for the acceptance of his right to rule. This insistence naturally played into the hands of the Republicans, especially the radicals, and city also became the beacon for nationalists from all over the peninsula, including Mazzini and Garibaldi. Indeed, the latter had been preparing to make his way to Venice, before setting his sights on The Eternal City.
After the news of Novara, a three man Triumvirate, one member being Mazzini, was declared in Rome. In late April, Garibaldi at the head of his Legion, perhaps 1,000 men, which had been loitering on the border with Naples, made his way there. By this time, alarm bells were ringing all over Europe, with the Catholic powers demanding the Pontiff’s reinstatement.
The new French President, Louis Napoleon, nephew of the great Emperor, anxious to placate the right wing clerical parties, and equally concerned not to appear deferential to Vienna, decided upon unilateral intervention. A French force would reinstate the Papal Government. After a bitter debate in the Chamber of Deputies, the measure passed by a vote of 325 votes to 283. It was a very different intervention to that which had been considered only a year before.
First Attack on Rome
The expeditionary force assembled for the purpose, was commanded by Major-General Oudinot, son of the Napoleonic Marshal. Numbering about 8,000 men, it comprised the following:
Brigade Molliére – 20th and 33rd Line Infantry Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of Chasseurs á Pied
Brigade Levaillant – 36th and 66th Line Infantry Regiments
Brigade Chadeysson – 68th Line Infantry Regiment, and the 22nd Light Infantry Regiment
Three four gun field artillery batteries, and 50 men of the 1st Chasseurs a Cheval
This force landed at the port of Civitavecchia, west of Rome, on April 24th. Oudinot talked his way ashore without resistance. Once in the town, he disarmed the garrison, and declared a State of Siege. While there, he allowed Major Manara’s Lombard Bersaglieri, who were on their way to Rome, to land, on condition that they not oppose him before May 4th.
Having failed to gain the confidence of the Roman Assembly, Oudinot then advanced on the city on April 29th. Opposed to him were some 8-9,000 men. Considering the matter to be inconsequential, he rashly attacked without any preparation, and suffered a repulse, losing some 500 killed and wounded, along with 365 prisoners.36
As might be imagined, the news of this defeat caused a major political storm in Paris. Ferdinand de Lesseps, a diplomat, was sent to aid Oudinot in coming to some agreement with the Roman Assembly, but protracted tortuous negotiations achieved little. Finally, de Lesseps was recalled. As these discussions continued, Garibaldi carried on inconclusive skirmishes with Neapolitan troops. As he was about to undertake more serious operations against King Ferdinando, however, news came of a new French move.
Second Attack on Rome
During the negotiations, General Oudinot’s command had been reinforced by a government which greatly feared Austrian intervention in Rome. By June 1st, his force had grown to about 30,000 men, now divided into three divisions. These were:
1st Division – Major-General Regnaud de Saint-Jean d’Angely
1st Brigade, Brigadier-General Molliére
17th, 20th, and 33rd Line Infantry Regiments, the 1st Battalion of Chasseurs á
Pied, and one six pounder battery (six guns) 2nd Brigade, Brigadier-General Moris
11th Dragoon Regiment, 1st Chasseur a Cheval Regiment, and one six pounder battery
2nd Division – Major-General Rostolan
1st Brigade, Brigadier-General C. Levaillant
32nd, 36th, and 66th Line Infantry Regiments, the 2nd Battalion of Chasseurs
á Pied, and one six pounder battery
2nd Brigade, brigadier-General Chadeysson
53rd and 68th Line Infantry Regiments, the 22nd light Infantry Regiment, and one six pounder battery
3rd Division – Major-General Guesviller
1st Brigade, Brigadier-General J. Levaillant
16th and 50th Line Infantry Regiments, 25th Light Infantry Regiment, and one six pounder battery
2nd Brigade, Brigadier-General Sauvant
13th Line Infantry Regiment, 13th Light Infantry Regiment, and one six pounder battery
Artillery – General Thierry
Five siege batteries, each comprisin
g two 24 pounder cannon and four 16 pounder cannon, and one siege battery, comprising four 25 pounder mortars, and four naval 18 pounder cannon.
To combat this force, Rome’s defenders numbered between 18 and 19,000 men. Of these, around 11,000 were regular Papal troops, that number including Manara’s Lombards. The remainder belonged to many different ‘columns’, ’legions’, ‘battalions’, and the like, ranging in size from a less than a hundred to over 1,000 men, as with Garibaldi’s Legion and the National Guard. Equally, of course, quality also varied, and the Papal line had had a distinctly uneven record in the previous year’s campaign. The commander, the Papal General Roselli, was a cautious man, and many would rather have had Garibaldi in his place.
Having received a request from Roselli to extend the current cease-fire, Oudinot replied that he would extend the deadline to the morning of June 4th. He then proceeded to launch his attack against the Villa Pamfili, outside the walls, west of the city, at 03:00, on the 3rd, capturing half of the 400 men there. For the rest of the day, Garibaldi directed attempts to retake the Villa, but at nightfall it remained in French hands.
From this point, Oudinot proceeded to mount a formal siege. By June 22nd, three breaches had been opened in the western walls of the city, and on the night of the 29th, in pouring rain, a French column seized the San Pancrazio Gate. During the heavy fighting, Major Manara was killed. As the conflict continued, the Roman Assembly met to consider the situation. The Assembly, against the wishes of Mazzini, decided to surrender the city. Both Mazzini and Garibaldi left the city, the latter with his wife, intending to go to Venice, and continue the struggle from there. He started with some 4,000 men, but this force rapidly melted away. On July 3rd, Oudinot’s forces took possession of Rome. French troops would remain there for 21 years.
The Duchies
On March 26th, Marshal Radetzky ordered II Corps across the River Po, to reoccupy the three fortresses of Modena, Parma, and Piacenza, and to secure the borders of those places. The Corps was ferried across the river on May 2nd, entering Piacenza that same day.
Upon the evacuation of General La Marmora’s troops after the latter pulled back into Piedmontese territory, the Duke of Modena, Francesco IV, requested Austrian support in reclaiming two districts of the Duchy, Pontremoli and Fivizzano, which had been occupied by Tuscany, and currently remained in Tuscan occupation. The brigade of Major-General Count Kolowrat, was duly sent by II Corps’ commander, Baron D’Aspre, to reclaim the areas for the Duke. This was duly accomplished on April 14th, as the Tuscan troops there, commanded by Colonel D’Apice, withdrew before Kolowrat, limiting himself to a protest. During the brief Novara Campaign, La Marmora had also occupied Parma, on friendly terms with the populace. On May 18th, Carlo III, Duke of Parma, entered that city, and claimed his throne.
In Tuscany itself, matters were much less clear. Although a belligerent against Austria in the 1848 campaign, the contingent sent had been, as seen, very small in relation to the population. Since the end of that conflict, affairs in the state had gone from bad to worse, with the government of Francesco Guerrazzi appearing to be in a vacuum, calling for a merging with the Roman Republic. Radical and lawless elements had alienated much of the hitherto disinterested populace. Matters were compounded by fighting between some militia from Leghorn and townspeople of Florence, in which a number of people were killed.
Tired of the constant turmoil, and fearful of an Imperial reaction to it, the Municipal authorities, on April 12th, announced that they were taking control of the government, in the name of the Grand Duke. This act was received with relief by much of the disaffected populace, and, as a result, the Grand Duke, Leopoldo II, was declared restored to the throne. Guerrazzi was unceremoniously locked up.
In the coastal city Leghorn, however, this was unacceptable. As a result, Austrian troops were sent against the city, which was defended by an estimated 7,000 armed men. On May 10th and 11th, it was bombarded and stormed by the brigade of Major-General Kolowrat, supported by those of Prince Friedrich Liechtenstein and Count Stadion, at a cost of one man killed, and four officers and 34 others wounded. The defenders loss was estimated at several hundred. 37
Bologna
As French troops dealt with the main forces of the Roman Republic, Imperial troops were moved to deal with the hornet’s nest of Bologna, which had given FML Welden a bloody nose the previous year, and also against the port city of Ancona. Not only would these ulcers be removed, but the possibility of men and supplies from them reaching Venice would also be ended.
FML Wimpffen was given the task of reducing Bologna. His force, a division under the command of FML Count Strassoldo, was composed of:
Brigade, Major-General Pfanzelter
10th Feld-Jäger Battalion (four companies)
I, II, III, and Landwehr/IR Hohenlohe
Six Pounder Foot Artillery Battery Nr. 1 (six guns)
Interim Brigade, Colonel Thun
I and II/IR Archduke Carl
Landwehr/IR Deutschmeister
Six Pounder Foot Artillery Battery Nr. 23 (six guns)
Attached troops
III/Vienna Volunteer Battalion
III/Styrian Schützen Battalion
One division, Radetzky Hussars
One division, Windischgrätz Chevauxlegers
Horse Artillery Battery Nr. 4 (six guns)
10 Pounder Howitzer Battery Nr, 7 (six guns)
12 Pounder Battery Nr. 1 (six guns)
Rocket Battery Nr. 5 (six pieces)
The whole division, 10 battalions, four squadrons, and 36 guns, numbered 9,030 infantry, 470 cavalry, and 630 artillery.38
The defending forces, commanded by the Papal officer, Colonel Marescotti, consisted of the 4th Papal Line Battalion, detachments of Finanzieri and Gendarmes, and a weak National Guard, perhaps 2,000 men in all. Many other residents, however, might be expected to take up arms in case of need.
Wimpffen appeared before the city on May 8th. A rash attack by Colonel Thun was repulsed at the city’s Galliera Gate, which was repulsed. Guns brought forward to support, came under heavy fire, and came close to being lost. I/IR Archduke Carl was particularly hit. Thun’s brigade was forced to retreat, with a loss of one officer mortally wounded, four others wounded, 25 NCOs and men killed, a further 94 wounded, and seven missing. Bologna had not lost her sting.39
Pfanzelter had also tested the defences of the Castiglione Gate, and found them ready. The city having refused a call to capitulate, it was bombarded without great effect. A second summons to surrender was rejected on May 12th. General of Cavalry Gorzkowski arrived from Mantua on the 14th, with two 12 inch mortars, along with 200 rounds, and additional howitzers. The next day, a bombardment of the city began at midday, and two hours later, white flags were floating above the city’s towers. At 20:00, on the 16th, the city was formally taken possession of. Major-General Pfanzelter’s brigade was already on its way to Ancona.
Ancona
After Ferrara surrendered to Count Thurn, the final step in isolating the Venetian Lagoon from the mainland was the port city of Ancona. In command of the garrison there, was Colonel Livio Zambeccari, his deputy, Lieutenant-Colonel Gariboldi. As the Austrian columns approached, Captain Belveze, commander of the French Adriatic Squadron, suggested to Zambeccari, that the city be declared under French protection. The latter, however, refused this offer.40
A move on Ancona had been planned by Radetzky earlier, as outlined by Admiral Dahlerup, who had been summoned to a Conference on May 4th:
Using a passable map of Ancona – Hess laid out the situation and fortifications of Ancona. The case was dealt with in 30minutes. The plan: Count Wimpffen would attack the town from the land side with an army corps of 5,000 men. I would be on time and place with three frigates, one war-steamer and two transport steamers, but I firmly demanded 400 infantry soldiers to land, pending circumstances, a request accepted to by Gyulai. He gave the impression that taking Ancona would be a piece of cake, which should at worst take a
few days only. Bruck, who had been tasked with negotiating peace with the Sardinians, was most interested in this matter and was expecting a lot from the participation of the Navy.41
The fortifications there were in a good state, as they had been overhauled during the French occupation between 1832 and 1838, and 119 pieces of ordnance defended them. Of these, 42 were in the Citadel, 17 of them being 18 or 24 pounders, and four mortars. The total number of men available for the city’s defence was 4,850. Of these, only three battalions, at most 1,800 men, could be considered regular troops. More pressing, though, was the shortage of gunners, there being only 330.42
After initial skirmishing with troops under Garibaldi west of the city, Wimpffen approached Ancona on May 24th. By the 27th, the investment was completed. The city was bombarded from both land and sea on both the 28th and 29th, but with little effect, contrary to what Dahlerup had been told. The Admiral then returned to Venice, leaving the frigates Venere and Guerriera standing off Ancona.
As further siege works continued to multiply, a blockade of the city came into effect on the 7th of June, the grounds being that it was a measure designed to quicken the return of legitimate rule. On June 16th, 43 guns, nine of them heavy mortars, with additional rockets, bombarded the city. On the 19th, Ancona capitulated under favourable terms.
Diplomatic Efforts
All through the operations in and around the Lagoon of Venice, diplomatic discussions and proposals continued in parallel with the war. New initiatives, from both sides, as well as other powers, continually came and went. The core position of Austrian efforts was to keep Venice isolated, whereas, of course, the Venetians sought active intervention from outside.
After the defeat of Carlo Alberto in March, realistically there could only be one possible ally. This was the rebel Hungarian leader, Lajos Kossuth, who was fighting a bitter campaign against the Imperial-Royal forces. Contacts, indeed, had been made in Ancona. Kossuth proposed an attack by him, towards the Adriatic, in direct support of Venice. This truly mad-cap scheme never materialised, but it did cause spirits in Venice to lift, and was worthwhile for that reason alone.
Radetzky's Marches Page 51