by Adam Grant
experts in history, political science, and psychology rated the presidents: Steven J. Rubenzer and Thomas R. Faschingbauer, Personality, Character, and Leadership in the White House: Psychologists Assess the Presidents (Dulles, VA: Brassey’s, 2004), 223.
“valuable in a marathon”: Personal interview with Chip Conley (February 24, 2012).
“no longer have to choose”: Personal interview with Bobbi Silten (February 9, 2012).
companies regularly use teams: Paul Osterman, “Work Reorganization in an Era of Restructuring: Trends in Diffusion and Effects on Employee Welfare,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 53 (2000): 179–196; and Duncan Gallie, Ying Zhou, Alan Felstead, and Francis Green, “Teamwork, Skill Development and Employee Welfare,” British Journal of Industrial Relations 50 (2012): 23–46.
service sector continues to expand: Adam M. Grant and Sharon K. Parker, “Redesigning Work Design Theories: The Rise of Relational and Proactive Perspectives,” Academy of Management Annals 3 (2009): 317–375.
financial advisers: Personal interviews with Steve Jones (July 13, 2011) and Peter Audet (December 12, 2011 and January 19, 2012).
single most important guiding principle: Shalom H. Schwartz and Anat Bardi, “Value Hierarchies across Cultures: Taking a Similarities Perspective,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 32 (2001): 268–290.
afraid to admit it: Personal interview with Sherryann Plesse (October 21, 2011).
pressured to lean in the taker direction: Dale T. Miller, “The Norm of Self-Interest,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 1053–1060.
putting on a business suit: see Jeffrey Sanchez-Burks, “Protestant Relational Ideology: The Cognitive Underpinnings and Organizational Implications of an American Anomaly,” Research in Organizational Behavior 26 (2005): 267–308; and “Protestant Relational Ideology and (In)Attention to Relational Cues in Work Settings,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 919–929.
fear of exploitation by takers: Robert H. Frank, Passions Within Reason: The Strategic Role of the Emotions (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988), xi.
Chapter 2: The Peacock and the Panda
Opening quote: Coretta Scott King, The Words of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Newmarket Press, 2008), 17.
Enron: Bethany McLean and Peter Elkind, The Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron (New York: Portfolio, 2004), Mimi Swartz and Sherron Watkins, Power Failure: The Inside Story of the Collapse of Enron (New York: Crown, 2004); and Judy Keen, “Bush, Lay Kept Emotional Distance,” USA Today, February 26, 2002.
networks come with three major advantages: Brian Uzzi and Shannon Dunlap, “How to Build Your Network,” Harvard Business Review December (2005): 53–60; and Ronald Burt, Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
LinkedIn founder: Reid Hoffman, “Connections with Integrity,” strategy+business, May 29, 2012.
glowing first impressions of takers: Mitja D. Back, Stefan C. Schmukle, and Boris Egloff, “Why Are Narcissists So Charming at First Sight? Decoding the Narcissism-Popularity Link at Zero Acquaintance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010): 132–145.
“kissing up, kicking down”: Roos Vonk, “The Slime Effect: Suspicion and Dislike of Likable Behavior Toward Superiors,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 849–864.
feel entitled to pursue self-serving goals: Serena Chen, Annette Y. Lee-Chai, and John A. Bargh, “Relationship Orientation as a Moderator of the Effects of Social Power,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 173–187; and Katherine A. DeCelles, D. Scott DeRue, Joshua D. Margolis, and Tara L. Ceranic, “Does Power Corrupt or Enable? When and Why Power Facilitates Self-Interested Behavior,” Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012): 681–689.
“karma police”: Gretchen Rubin, “Giving Deserved Praise,” Psychology Today, May 15, 2012, accessed April 11, 2013, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-happiness-project/201205/giving-deserved-praise.
ultimatum game: Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch, and Richard H. Thaler, “Fairness and the Assumptions of Economics,” Journal of Business 59 (1986): S285–S300.
sharing reputational information: Matthew Feinberg, Joey Cheng, and Robb Willer, “Gossip as an Effective and Low-Cost Form of Punishment,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35 (2012): 25; and Matthew Feinberg, Robb Willer, Jennifer Stellar, and Dacher Keltner, “The Virtues of Gossip: Reputational Information Sharing as Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 1015–1030.
“can’t pursue the benefits of networks”: Wayne E. Baker, Achieving Success Through Social Capital: Tapping Hidden Resources in Your Personal and Business Networks (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000), 19.
CEOs in computer hardware and software companies: Arijit Chatterjee and Donald C. Hambrick, “It’s All about Me: Narcissistic Chief Executive Officers and Their Effects on Company Strategy and Performance,” Administrative Science Quarterly 52 (2007): 351–386.
technology firms led by givers have higher returns on assets: Suzanne J. Peterson, Benjamin M. Galvin, and Donald Lange, “CEO Servant Leadership: Exploring Executive Characteristics and Firm Performance,” Personnel Psychology 65 (2012): 565–594.
“network ties are the conduits”: Benjamin S. Crosier, Gregory D. Webster, and Haley M. Dillon, “Wired to Connect: Evolutionary Psychology and Social Networks,” Review of General Psychology 16 (2012): 230–239.
Facebook profiles: Laura E. Buffardi and W. Keith Campbell, “Narcissism and Social Networking Websites,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34 (2008): 1303–1314.
social media to catch takers: Personal interview with Howard Lee (December 11, 2011).
more LinkedIn connections: Jessica Shambora, “Fortune’s Best Networker,” Fortune, February 9, 2011, accessed January 26, 2012, http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/02/09/fortunes-best-networker/.
“Adam Rifkin”: Personal interviews with Adam Rifkin (January 28, 2012), Jessica Shambora (February 9, 2012), Raymond Rouf (February 16, 2012), and Eghosa Omoigui (March 14, 2012); visit to 106 Miles (May 9, 2012); Brian Norgard conversation (http://namesake.com/conversation/brian/like-welcome-ifindkarma-namesake-community); Adam Rifkin’s website (http://ifindkarma.com/) and Graham Spencer’s websites (www.gspencer.net).
norm of reciprocity: Robert B. Cialdini, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (New York: HarperBusiness, 2006).
“It’s better to give before you receive”: Keith Ferrazzi and Tahl Raz, Never Eat Alone: And Other Secrets to Success, One Relationship at a Time (New York: Crown Business, 2005), 22.
“hopes of getting something in return”: Personal interview with Dan Weinstein (January 26, 2012).
“How can I help”: Guy Kawasaki interview with Warren Cass, accessed May 14, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=_OsWvp2X8gk.
“weak ties”: Mark Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,” Sociological Theory 1 (1983): 201–233.
pronoia: Fred H. Goldner, “Pronoia,” Social Problems 30 (1982): 82–91; and personal interview with Brian Little (January 24, 2011).
dormant ties: Daniel Z. Levin, Jorge Walter, and J. Keith Murnighan, “Dormant Ties: The Value of Reconnecting,” Organization Science 22 (2011): 923–939; and “The Power of Reconnection: How Dormant Ties Can Surprise You,” MIT Sloan Management Review 52 (2011): 45–50.
energy through networks: Rob Cross, Wayne Baker, and Andrew Parker, “What Creates Energy in Organizations?” MIT Sloan Management Review 44 (2003): 51–56.
“someone else will do something for me down the road”: Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 21.
giving can be contagious: James H. Fowler and Nicholas A. Christakis, “Cooperative Behavior Cascades i
n Human Social Networks,” PNAS 107 (2010): 5334–5338.
consistent givers: J. Mark Weber and J. Keith Murnighan, “Suckers or Saviors? Consistent Contributors in Social Dilemmas,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008) 1340–1353.
professional engineers: Francis J. Flynn, “How Much Should I Give and How Often? The Effects of Generosity and Frequency of Favor Exchange on Social Status and Productivity,” Academy of Management Journal 46 (2003): 539–553.
Chapter 3: The Ripple Effect
Opening quote: John Andrew Holmes, Wisdom in Small Doses (Lincoln, NE: The University Publishing Company, 1927).
George Meyer: David Owen, “Taking Humor Seriously: George Meyer, the Funniest Man behind the Funniest Show on TV,” New Yorker, March 13, 2000; Simon Vozick-Levinson, “For Simpsons Writer Meyer, Comedy Is No Laughing Matter,” Harvard Crimson, June 4, 2003; Eric Spitznagel, “George Meyer,” Believer, September 2004; Mike Sacks, And Here’s the Kicker: Conversations with 21 Top Humor Writers on Their Craft (Cincinnati: Writers Digest Books, 2009); and personal interviews with Meyer (June 21, 2012), Tim Long (June 22, 2012), Carolyn Omine (June 27, 2012), and Don Payne (July 12, 2012).
geniuses and genius makers: Liz Wiseman and Greg McKeown, Multipliers: How the Best Leaders Make Everyone Smarter (New York: HarperBusiness, 2010).
highly creative people: Donald W. MacKinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,” American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–495; and “Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential,” American Psychologist 20 (1965): 273–281.
creative scientists: Gregory Feist, “A Structural Model of Scientific Eminence,” Psychological Science 4 (1993): 366–371; and “A Meta-Analysis of Personality in Scientific and Artistic Creativity,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 2 (1998): 290–309.
Frank Lloyd Wright: Roger Friedland and Harold Zellman, The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 138; Ed de St. Aubin, “Truth Against the World: A Psychobiographical Exploration of Generativity in the Life of Frank Lloyd Wright,” in Generativity and Adult Development: How and Why We Care for the Next Generation, ed. Dan P. McAdams and Ed de St. Aubin (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1998), 402 and 408; Christopher Hawthorne, “At Wright’s Taliesin, Maybe the Walls Can Talk,” Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2006; and Brendan Gill, Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: De Capo Press, 1998), 334.
Edgar Tafel: Joan Altabe, “Fallingwater Is Falling Apart,” Gadfly Online, February 18, 2002; see also Hugh Pearman, “How Many Wrights Make a Wrong?” Sunday Times Magazine, June 12, 2005.
cardiac surgeons: Robert Huckman and Gary Pisano, “The Firm Specificity of Individual Performance: Evidence from Cardiac Surgery,” Management Science 52 (2006): 473–488.
Star analysts: Boris Groysberg, Linda-Eling Lee, and Ashish Nanda, “Can They Take It with Them? The Portability of Star Knowledge Workers’ Performance,” Management Science 54 (2008): 1213–1230; and Boris Groysberg and Linda-Eling Lee, “The Effect of Colleague Quality on Top Performance: The Case of Security Analysts,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 29 (2008): 1123–1144.
interdependence as a sign of weakness: MarYam G. Hamedani, Hazel R. Markus, and Alyssa S. Fu, “My Nation, My Self: Divergent Framings of America Influence American Selves,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (2011): 350–364.
this makes their groups better off: Nathan P. Podsakoff , Steven W. Whiting, Philip M. Podsakoff , and Brian D. Blume, “Individual- and Organizational-Level Consequences of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 122–141; and Philip M. Podsakoff , Scott B. MacKenzie, Julie B. Paine, and Daniel G. Bachrach, “Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research,” Journal of Management 26 (2000): 513–563.
expedition behavior: Personal interviews with Jeff Ashby (July 9, 2012) and John Kanengieter (July 13, 2012).
no longer have a target on their backs: Eugene Kim and Theresa M. Glomb, “Get Smarty Pants: Cognitive Ability, Personality, and Victimization,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 889–901.
revealed his skills: Sabrina Deutsch Salamon and Yuval Deutsch, “OCB as a Handicap: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 27 (2006): 185–199.
idiosyncrasy credits: Edwin P. Hollander, “Conformity, Status, and Idiosyncrasy Credit,” Psychological Review 65 (1958): 117–127; see also Charlie L. Hardy and Mark Van Vugt, “Nice Guys Finish First: The Competitive Altruism Hypothesis,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006): 1402–1413.
Berkeley sociologist: Robb Willer, “Groups Reward Individual Sacrifice: The Status Solution to the Collective Action Problem,” American Sociological Review 74 (2009): 23–43.
givers get extra credit: Adam M. Grant, Sharon Parker, and Catherine Collins, “Getting Credit for Proactive Behavior: Supervisor Reactions Depend on What You Value and How You Feel,” Personnel Psychology 62 (2009): 31–55.
study of Slovenian companies: Matej Cerne, Christina Nerstad, Anders Dysvik, and Miha Škerlavaj, “What Goes Around Comes Around: Knowledge Hiding, Perceived Motivational Climate, and Creativity,” Academy of Management Journal (forthcoming).
Jonas Salk: David Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 205–206 and 208.
“evil father figure”: Douglas Heuck, “A Talk with Salk Sheds Wisdom,” Pittsburgh Quarterly, Winter 2006.
rare comments about the incident: Academy of Achievement, “Jonas Salk Interview,” May 16, 1991, accessed March 15, 2012, http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/sal0int-4, and Paul Offit, The Cutter Incident: How America’s First Polio Vaccine Led to the Growing Vaccine Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 57.
Peter Salk: Luis Fábregas, “Salk’s Son Extends Olive Branch to Polio Team,” Pittsburgh Tribune, April 13, 2005.
responsibility bias: Michael Ross and Fiore Sicoly, “Egocentric Biases in Availability and Attribution,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 322–336.
top words: Mark Peters and Daniel O’Brien, “From Cromulent to Craptacular: The Top 12 Simpsons Created Words,” Cracked.com, July 23, 2007; and Ben Zimmer, “The ‘Meh’ Generation: How an Expression of Apathy Invaded America,” Boston Globe, February 26, 2012.
reflect on each member’s contributions: Eugene M. Caruso, Nicholas Epley, and Max H. Bazerman, “The Costs and Benefits of Undoing Egocentric Responsibility Assessments in Groups,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006): 857–871.
recognize what other people contribute: Michael McCall, “Orientation, Outcome, and Other-Serving Attributions,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17 (1995): 49–64.
psychological safety: Amy Edmondson, “Learning from Mistakes is Easier Said Than Done: Group and Organizational Influences on the Detection and Correction of Human Error,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 32 (1996): 5–28; and “Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams,” Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 350–383.
major role in innovation: David Obstfeld, “Social Networks, the Tertius Iungens Orientation, and Involvement in Innovation,” Administrative Science Quarterly 50 (2005): 100–130.
perspective gap: Loran F. Nordgren, Mary-Hunter Morris McDonnell, and George Loewenstein, “What Constitutes Torture? Psychological Impediments to an Objective Evaluation of Enhanced Interrogation Tactics,” Psychological Science 22 (2011): 689–694.
San Francisco hospital: Robert Burton, “Pathological Certitude,” in Pathological Altruism, ed. Barbara Oakley et al. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 131–137; Natalie Angier, “The Pathological Altruist Gives Till Someone Hurts,” New York Times, October 3, 2011; and personal
interview with Burton (February 23, 2012).
put themselves in other people’s shoes: Adam M. Grant and James Berry, “The Necessity of Others Is the Mother of Invention: Intrinsic and Prosocial Motivations, Perspective-Taking, and Creativity,” Academy of Management Journal 54 (2011): 73–96.
registry gifts and unique gifts: Francesca Gino and Francis J. Flynn, “Give Them What They Want: The Benefits of Explicitness in Gift Exchange,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011): 915–922.
tend to stay within our own frames of reference: C. Daniel Batson, Shannon Early, and Giovanni Salvarani, “Perspective Taking: Imagining How Another Feels Versus Imagining How You Would Feel,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997): 751–758.
goldfish crackers over broccoli: Betty Repacholi and Alison Gopnik, “Early Reasoning about Desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-Month-Olds,” Developmental Psychology 33 (1997): 12–21.”
younger siblings: Beatrice Whiting and John Whiting, Children of Six Cultures: A Psycho-Cultural Analysis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), David Winter, “The Power Motive in Women—and Men,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 510–519; Frank J. Sulloway, Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives (New York: Vintage Books, 1997); and Paul A. M. Van Lange, Wilma Otten, Ellen M. N. De Bruin, and Jeffrey A. Joireman, “Development of Prosocial, Individualistic, and Competitive Orientations: Theory and Preliminary Evidence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (1997): 733–746.
female family members—even infants—might tilt us in the giver direction: Adam M. Grant, “Why Men Need Women,” New York Times, July 20, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/07/21/opinion/sunday/why-men-need-women.html.
“It is amazing”: de St. Aubin, 405.
Chapter 4: Finding the Diamond in the Rough
Reggie Love: Personal interview (May 28, 2012); and Peter Baker, “Education of a President,” New York Times, October 12, 2010; David Picker, “Amazing Ride Nears End for ‘First Brother’ Reggie Love,” ABC News, November 22, 2011; Jodi Kantor, “Leaving Obama’s Shadow, to Cast One of His Own,” New York Times, November 10, 2011; and Noreen Malone, “Obama Still Hasn’t Replaced Reggie Love,” New York Magazine, February 16, 2012.