by Adam Grant
optimistic belief: Randy Pausch and Jeffrey Zaslow, The Last Lecture (New York: Hyperion, 2008), 145.
Abraham Lincoln: Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 104.
men were earning substantially more money: Linda Babcock and Sara Laschever, Women Don’t Ask: The High Cost of Avoiding Negotiation—and Positive Strategies for Change (New York: Bantam, 2007); Deborah A. Small, Michele Gelfand, Linda Babcock, and Hilary Gettman, “Who Goes to the Bargaining Table? The Influence of Gender and Framing on the Initiation of Negotiation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007): 600–613.
large concessions: Emily T. Amanatullah, Michael W. Morris, and Jared R. Curhan, “Negotiators Who Give Too Much: Unmitigated Communion, Relational Anxieties, and Economic Costs in Distributive and Integrative Bargaining,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 723–738.
income penalty: Timothy A. Judge, Beth A. Livingston, and Charlice Hurst, “Do Nice Guys—and Gals—Really Finish Last? The Joint Eff ects of Sex and Agreeableness on Income,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 102 (2012): 390–407.
Studies in more controlled settings: Bruce Barry and Raymond A. Friedman, “Bargainer Characteristics in Distributive and Integrative Negotiation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 345–359.
giving is sometimes more rewarding for men than women: Madeline E. Heilman and Julie J. Chen, “Same Behavior, Different Consequences: Reactions to Men’s and Women’s Altruistic Citizenship Behavior,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005): 431–441.
gender may be an amplifier of giver success and failure: Adam M. Grant, “Do Women Civilize Men?” LinkedIn Influencers, July 23, 2013, www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20130723030236-69244073-do-women-really-civilize-men
but only when told that their empathy was being tested: William Ickes, Paul R. Gesn, and Tiffany Graham, “Gender Differences in Empathic Accuracy: Differential Ability or Differential Motivation? Personal Relationships 7 (2000): 95–109.
are women more likely to be givers than men?: Alice H. Eagly and Maureen Crowley, “Gender and Helping Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Social Psychological Literature,” Psychological Bulletin 100 (1986): 283–308.
second factor at play: see Lilach Sagiv, “Vocational Interests and Basic Balues,” Journal of Career Assessment 10 (2002): 233–257; Idit Ben-Shem and Tamara E. Avi-Itzhak, “On Work Values and Career Choice in Freshmen Students: The Case of Helping vs. Other Professions,” Journal of Vocational Behavior 39 (1991): 369–379; Jeylan T. Mortimer and Jon Lorence, “Work Experience and Occupational Value Socialization: A Longitudinal Study,” American Journal of Sociology 84 (1979): 1361–1385; and Robert H. Frank, “What Price the Moral High Ground?” Southern Economic Journal 63 (1996): 1–17.
Sameer Jain: Personal interview (December 16, 2011).
176 senior executives: Hannah Riley Bowles, Linda Babcock, and Kathleen L. McGinn, “Constraints and Triggers: Situational Mechanics of Gender in Negotiation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005): 951–965.
negotiated on behalf of a friend: Emily T. Amanatullah and Michael W. Morris, “Negotiating Gender Roles: Gender Differences in Assertive Negotiating Are Mediated by Women’s Fear of Backlash and Attenuated When Negotiating on Behalf of Others,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010): 256–267.
relational account: Hannah Riley Bowles and Linda Babcock, “Relational Accounts: A Strategy for Women Negotiating for Higher Compensation” (working paper, 2011).
twenty-eight different studies: Carsten K. W. De Dreu, Laurie R. Weingart, and Seungwoo Kwon, “Influence of Social Motives on Integrative Negotiation: A Meta-Analytic Review and Test of Two Theories,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000): 889–905.
becomes second nature: Brian R. Little, “Free Traits, Personal Projects and Idio-Tapes: Three Tiers for Personality Research,” Psychological Inquiry 7 (1996): 340–344; and “Free Traits and Personal Contexts: Expanding a Social Ecological Model of Well-Being,” in Person-Environment Psychology, 2nd ed., ed. W. Bruce Walsh, Kenneth H. Craik, and Richard H. Price (New York: Guilford Press, 2000): 87–116.
Chapter 8: The Scrooge Shift
Opening quote: Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 1759/2004), 3.
Craigslist: Jenna Lloyd and Sherry K. Gunter, craigslist 4 Everyone (New York: Pearson Education, 2008).
Freecycle: Personal interview with Deron Beal (June 19, 2012); Richard Jerome, “Free for All,” People, May 10, 2004; Deron Beal and S. James Snyder, “Power of One,” Time, November 30, 2009; and Carol Brennan, “Deron Beal,” Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2005.
what drives people to participate in exchange systems: Robb Willer, Francis J. Flynn, and Sonya Zak, “Structure, Identity, and Solidarity: A Comparative Field Study of Generalized and Direct Exchange,” Administrative Science Quarterly 57 (2012): 119–155.
defendant of pure altruism: C. Daniel Batson, “How Social an Animal? The Human Capacity for Caring,” American Psychologist 45 (1990): 336–346; and C. Daniel Batson, Karen Sager, Eric Garst, Misook Kang, Kostia Rubchinsky, and Karen Dawson, “Is Empathy-Induced Helping Due to Self-Other Merging?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (1997): 495–509.
devil’s advocate: Robert B. Cialdini, Stephanie L. Brown, Brian P. Lewis, Carol Luce, and Steven L. Neuberg, “Reinterpreting the Empathy-Altruism Relationship: When One into One Equals Oneness,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (1997): 481–494; and Jon K. Maner, Carol L. Luce, Steven L. Neuberg, Robert B. Cialdini, Stephanie L. Brown, and Brad J. Sagarin, “The Effects of Perspective Taking on Motivations for Helping: Still No Evidence for Altruism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002): 1601–1610.
red herring: Frans de Waal, The Age of Empathy (New York: Crown, 2009), 75.
writing Wikipedia entries: Oded Nov, “What Motivates Wikipedians?” Communications of the ACM 50 (2007): 60–64; see also Joachim Schroer and Guido Hertel, “Voluntary Engagement in an Open Web-Based Encyclopedia: Wikipedians and Why They Do It,” Media Psychology 12 (2009): 96–120.
lead partner: Personal interview with “Phillippe” (January 24, 2012).
common ground: Mark Levine, Amy Prosser, David Evans, and Stephen Reicher, “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 443–453.
common identity: John F. Dovidio, Samuel L. Gaertner, Ana Validzic, Kimberly Matoka, Brenda Johnson, and Stacy Frazier, “Extending the Benefits of Recategorization: Evaluations, Self-Disclosure, and Helping,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997): 401–420.
another man named Adam Rifkin: Personal interviews with Panda Adam Rifkin (January 28, 2012) and Hollywood Adam Rifkin (February 2, 2012). For the full story of how the two Adam Rifkins met, see www.ifindkarma.com/attic/local/realadam.html and www.ifindkarma.com/attic/local/denial.html.
when people received help from one peer, they were more likely to give help to another peer: Leonard Berkowitz and Louise R. Daniels, “Responsibility and Dependency,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963): 429–436.
remind us of ourselves: Brett W. Pelham, Matthew C. Mirenberg, and John T. Jones, “Why Susie Sells Seashells by the Seashore: Implicit Egotism and Major Life Decisions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002): 469–487; John T. Jones, Brett W. Pelham, Matthew C. Mirenberg, and John J. Hetts, “Name Letter Preferences Are Not Merely Mere Exposure: Implicit Egotism as Self-Regulation,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38 (2002): 170–177; Brett W. Pelham, Mauricio Carvallo, and John T. Jones, “Implicit Egotism,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2006): 106–110; and Er
nest L. Abel, “Influence of Names on Career Choices in Medicine,” Names 58 (2010): 65–74.
attracted to potential dates: John T. Jones, Brett W. Pelham, Mauricio Carvallo, and Matthew C. Mirenberg, “How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Js: Implicit Egotism and Interpersonal Attraction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (2004): 665–683.
Kiva: Jeff Galak, Deborah Small, and Andrew T. Stephen, “Microfinance Decision Making: A Field Study of Prosocial Lending,” Journal of Marketing Research XLVIII (2011): S130–S137.
“Googlegangers”: Stephanie Rosenbloom, “Names That Match Forge a Bond on the Internet,” New York Times, April 10, 2008, accessed June 26, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2008/04/10/us/10names.html?_r=1&.
alternative explanations: Uri Simonsohn, “Spurious? Name Similarity Effects (Implicit Egotism) in Marriage, Job, and Moving Decisions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101 (2011): 1–24; Leif D. Nelson and Joseph P. Simmons, “Moniker Maladies: When Names Sabotage Success,” Psychological Science 18 (2007): 1106–1112; Ernest L. Abel and Michael L. Kruger, “Symbolic Signifi cance of Initials on Longevity,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 104 (2007): 179–182; and “Athletes, Doctors, and Lawyers with First Names Beginning with ‘D’ Die Sooner,” Death Studies 34 (2010): 71–81; and Nicholas Christenfeld, David P. Phillips, and Laura M. Glynn, “What’s in a Name: Mortality and the Power of Symbols,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 47 (1999): 241–254.
Fingerprints: Jerry M. Burger, Nicole Messian, Shebani Patel, Alicia del Prado, and Carmen Anderson, “What a Coincidence! The Effects of Incidental Similarity on Compliance,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004): 35–43.
optimal distinctiveness: Marilynn B. Brewer, “The Importance of Being We: Human Nature and Intergroup Relations,” American Psychologist 62 (2007): 728–738; and Kennon M. Sheldon and B. Ann Bettencourt, “Psychological Need-Satisfaction and Subjective Well-Being within Social Groups,” British Journal of Social Psychology 41 (2002): 25–38.
elevation: Jonathan Haidt, “Elevation and the Positive Psychology of Morality,” in Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived, ed. Corey L. M. Keyes and Jonathan Haidt (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003), 275–289; and Sara B. Algoe and Jonathan Haidt, “Witnessing Excellence in Action: The ‘Other-Praising’ Emotions of Elevation, Gratitude, and Admiration,” Journal of Positive Psychology 4 (2009): 105–127.
ten features of Superman: Leif D. Nelson and Michael I. Norton, “From Student to Superhero: Situational Primes Shape Future Helping,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41 (2005): 423–430.
“even a penny will help”: Robert B. Cialdini and David A. Schroeder, “Increasing Compliance by Legitimizing Paltry Contributions: When Even a Penny Helps,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976): 599–604; for a recent extension, see Sachiyo M. Shearman and Jina H. Yoo, “Even a Penny Will Help! Legitimization of Paltry Donation and Social Proof in Soliciting Donation to a Charitable Organization,” Communication Research Reports 24 (2007): 271–282.
energy consumption: Jessica M. Nolan, P. Wesley Schultz, Robert B. Cialdini, Noah J. Goldstein, and Vladas Griskevicius, “Normative Social Influence Is Underdetected,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 34 (2008): 913–923; P. Wesley Schultz, Jessica M. Nolan, Robert B. Cialdini, Noah J. Goldstein, and Vladas Griskevicius, “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms,” Psychological Science 18 (2007): 429–434; and Hunt Alcott, “Social Norms and Energy Conservation,” MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research (working paper, 2009).
“ready to aid one another”: Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: Murray, 1871).
Underestimating the givers: Francis J. Flynn and Vanessa K. B. Lake (now Bohns), “If You Need Help, Just Ask: Underestimating Compliance with Direct Requests for Help,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 128–143.
only natural to assume: Dale T. Miller, “The Norm of Self-Interest,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 1053–1060.
“explaining almost every act of their lives on the principle of self-interest”: Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1835/1969), 526.
“social norms against sounding too charitable”: Robert Wuthnow, Acts of Compassion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).
“no one believes”: David Krech and Richard S. Crutchfield, Theory and Problems of Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948).
Harvard freshmen: Stephanie Garlock and Hana Rouse, “Harvard Most Values Success, 2014 Says,” Harvard Crimson, September 2, 2011; “Harvard College Introduces Pledge for Freshmen to Affirm Values,” Harvard Crimson, September 1, 2011; and Hana Rouse, “College to Remove Signatures from Freshman Kindness Pledge,” Harvard Crimson, September 7, 2011.
“Ideas can have profound effects”: Barry Schwartz, “Psychology, Idea Technology, and Ideology,” Psychological Science 8 (1997): 21–27.
Reciprocity Ring: Wayne Baker and Adam M. Grant, “Values and Contributions in the Reciprocity Ring” (working paper, 2007).
reputational benefits: Dan Ariely, Anat Bracha, and Stephan Meier, “Doing Good or Doing Well? Image Motivation and Monetary Incentives in Behaving Prosocially,” American Economic Review 99 (2009): 544–555.
brainstorming: Harry M. Wallace and Roy F. Baumeister, “The Performance of Narcissists Rises and Falls with Perceived Opportunity for Glory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002): 819–834.
go green to be seen: Vladas Griskevicius, Joshua M. Tybur, and Bram Van den Bergh, “Going Green to Be Seen: Status, Reputation, and Conspicuous Conservation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98 (2010): 392–404.
bank tellers: Chun Hui, Simon S. K. Lam, and Kenneth K. S. Law, “Instrumental Values of Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Promotion: A Field Quasi-Experiment,” Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (2000): 822–828.
“sets a terrible precedent”: Harry Lewis, “The Freshman Pledge,” Blogspot, August 20, 2011, http://harry-lewis.blogspot.com/2011/08/freshman-pledge.html.
making identity plans known to others: Peter M. Gollwitzer, Paschal Sheeran, Verena Michalski, and Andrea E. Seifert, “When Intentions Go Public: Does Social Reality Widen the Intention-Behavior Gap?” Psychological Science 20 (2009): 612–618.
might backfire: Sonya Sachdeva, Rumen Iliev, and Douglas L. Medin, “Sinning Saints and Saintly Sinners: The Paradox of Moral Self-Regulation,” Psychological Science 20 (2009): 523–528.
attribute it to an external reason: C. Daniel Batson, Jay S. Coke, M. L. Jasnoski, and Michael Hanson, “Buying Kindness: Eff ect of an Extrinsic Incentive for Helping on Perceived Altruism,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 4 (1978): 86–91; and Ziva Kunda and Shalom H. Schwartz, “Undermining Intrinsic Moral Motivation: External Reward and Self-Presentation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45 (1983): 763–771.
To paraphrase the writer: E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (New York: Penguin Classics, 1927/2005).
important aspect of their identities: Marcia A. Finkelstein, Louis A. Penner, and Michael T. Brannick, “Motive, Role Identity, and Prosocial Personality as Predictors of Volunteer Activity,” Social Behavior and Personality 33 (2005): 403–418; Adam M. Grant and Jane E. Dutton, “Beneficiary or Benefactor: Are People More Prosocial When They Reflect on Receiving or Giving?” Psychological Science 23 (2012): 1033–1039; and Adam M. Grant, “Giving Time, Time After Time: Work Design and Sustained Employee Participation in Corporate Volunteering,” Academy of Management Review 37 (2012): 589–615.
Fortune 500 retail company: Adam M. Grant, Jane E. Dutton, and Brent D. Rosso, “Giving Commitment: Employee Support Programs and the Prosocial Sensemaking Process,” Academy of Management Journal 51 (2008): 898–918.
Chapt
er 9: Out of the Shadows
Opening quote: Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (New York: Random House, 2002), trans. Gregory Hays, 55.
Derek Sorenson: Personal interview (January 11, 2012).
smarter negotiators: Bruce Barry and Raymond A. Friedman, “Bargainer Characteristics in Distributive and Integrative Negotiation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 345–359.
Sherryann Plesse: Personal interview (April 13, 2012).
Peter Audet: Personal correspondence (July 1, 2012).
making significant, lasting contributions to a broad range of people: Adam M. Grant, “Relational Job Design and the Motivation to Make a Prosocial Difference,” Academy of Management Review 32 (2007): 393–417.
“Givers advance the world”: Simon Sinek, https://twitter.com/simonsinek/status/262949144870649857.
Actions for Impact
top-secret mission: Personal interviews with Jay (April 19 and May 10, 2012) and his assistant (May 3, 2012).
job crafting: Amy Wrzesniewski, Justin M. Berg, Adam M. Grant, Jennifer Kurkoski, and Brian Welle, “Job Crafting in Motion: Achieving Sustainable Gains in Happiness and Performance” (working paper, 2012).
Mercer study: Corporate Executive Board, “Creating an Eff ective Reward and Recognition Program,” March 2006, accessed May 12, 2012, www.performancesolutions.nc.gov/motivationInitiatives/RewardsandRecognition/docs/CLC-Rewards&Recogni-tion.pdf.
Love Machine: Personal interview with Chris Colosi (March 20, 2012).
“One of my objectives is listening”: Personal interview with Jim Quigley (August 23, 2011).
GetRaised: Personal interview with Matt Wallaert (February 8, 2012).
ServiceSpace: Personal interview with Nipun Mehta (March 23, 2012).
BNI: Personal interview with Ivan Misner (January 31, 2012).
aggressively helpful: The interviews about The Kindness Offensive were conducted by Laurence Lemaire and Matt Stevens with founders David Goodfellow, Benny Crane, James Hunter, and Rob Williams (March 3, 2012); and the interview with Ryan Garcia was conducted by Valentino Kim (March 20, 2012).