Cicero, 422n
C3I (command, control, communication, and intelligence), 158
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 288
Civil War (American)
First Battle of Bull Run, 124, 448n, 449n
Fort Sumter, 124
Gettysburg, 126–27, 449nn
optical telegraph, 123–28, 447n
Signal Corps (US Army Signal Corps) in, 123, 124, 125, 447n, 448–49nn
“When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again,” 123
Clark, Alvan, 131, 133, 450n
see also Alvan Clark & Sons
Clarke, Arthur C., 192, 279, 330, 494n
Clausewitz, Carl von, 238, 240, 479n
Clementine lunar probe, 26
Clement IV (pope), 106
clepsydras, 40
climate change, 14, 388–89, 414n
Clinton, George, 113
clocks, development of, 40
CNN, 7, 19, 341
Cockburn, Andrew, 411n, 485n
coherence, 242
Cold War
aerospace industry consolidation after, 11, 411n
buildup of US military strength, 267
end of, 358, 368
particle physics benefit from, 29
Strategic Defense Initiative and, 250, 252
Collier’s magazine series on space, 366, 523–24n
collision cross-section, 401–2
Colorado Springs, Colorado, 16, 17
Columbia University’s Center on Capitalism and Society, 4
Columbus, Bartholomew, 86
Columbus, Christopher
books, charts, and navigation aids used, 48, 86–87
eclipse used as threat, 48–49
first voyage across Atlantic, 85–86
fourth voyage across Atlantic, 48–49
pelican sightings, 65, 431n
propositions to sponsors for funding, 85, 86
voyages to Iceland and Ghana, 85, 437n
comets
organic material from, 207
Tempel 1, 207–8
water in, 384, 386
Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry, 318, 411n
Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, 11–12, 21, 323, 393, 395, 493n
Committee of Public Safety (France), 121
communications satellites
Arthur C. Clarke and, 394n
Canadian satellite, 353
collision of, 3, 4
Defense Satellite Communication System, 501n
during Eisenhower era, 278–79, 501n
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), 340, 501n
use in Gulf War, 340–41, 517n
compass card (wind rose), 77, 78
compass (magnetic), development, 75–78
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT, 1996), 313–14, 508n
Comte, Auguste, 147–48
concave lenses, 110, 129, 442n
Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology (Kepler), 49
Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 341–42
Congress, United States
Cox Committee, 374–76
Democratic Congresses support of wars in twentieth century, 10–11, 410n
Republican Congress support of Iraq War, 11
use of military force authorized by, 10–11, 410n
conjunction in February 1953 BC, 43
conscription of nonmilitary organizations, 322, 329–30
Convento de Cristo, Portugal, 80
convex lenses, 110, 129
Cook, James, 91, 92, 97, 130, 441n
“Cooperation in Space” agreement of 1972, 357, 521n
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 49, 440n
Copernicus satellite system (EU), 160, 329
copper, 69–70, 432–33n
Cordesman, Anthony H., 347–48
Corker, Bob, 530n
Cornwall, England, 70, 71, 439n
Corona missions, 158–59, 278, 458n
CORONA (KH-1) satellites, 204–5, 228, 500n
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 289
Cosgrove, Denis, 89
Cosimo II de’ Medici, 53, 442–43n
Cosmic Discovery (Harwit), 151
cosmic microwave background, 171, 199, 399
cosmic rays, 6, 214, 218
counterspace, 236, 237, 322, 373, 393–94, 478–79nn, 531n
Counterspace Operations: Air Force Doctrine Document, 322
Courier communication satellite, 278
Course on Positive Philosophy (Comte), 147–48
Covault, Craig, 471n
Cox Committee, 374–75
Cromwell, Seymour, 55
cruise missiles, 18, 332, 346
Cuban Missile Crisis, 273, 497n
cuckoos, 65
Cumings, Bruce, 314
Curiosity rover, 242, 371, 389
Curran, Joan, 195
Curtis, Heber D., 131, 134, 453n
cyberspace, paired with space, 235, 236, 308, 319, 321
cyberwar, 235
da Costa, Emilia Viotti, 83
da Gama, Vasco, 81
Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé, 141, 142, 143, 456n
daguerreotypes, 141, 142–44, 148, 456n
Darius the Great, 119
Darwin, Charles, 97
d’Aurillac, Gerbert, 101, 441n
da Vinci, Leonardo, 240
Davis, Jefferson, 124
dazzle camouflage, 172, 173–74, 259
dead reckoning, 77, 82, 86
Dean, Patrick, 292
“death rays,” 243–45
Dee, John, 106–7
Deep Impact mission, 207–8
Deep Impact (movie), 255
deep space, collaboration in, 398
de-escalation in space, focus on, 397, 531–32n
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 21, 154, 338–39, 345
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 158, 341–42, 501–2n
Defense Satellite Communication System, 501n
defense share, 452–53n
Defense Support Program satellites, 158, 341
Democritus, 169
Descartes, René, 444n
detection
defined, 183–84
exoplanets, 175, 399
gamma rays, 199, 213–18
Hubble Space Telescope, detection story, 227–33
infrared light, 169–70, 199, 219–25
Jodrell Bank, detection story, 209–13
survival and conquest and, 171–72
X-rays, 180, 213, 225–27
deterrence
diplomacy and, 312–15
and first use as option, 308, 309
through military strength, 305–6, 311–12, 316
by NATO, 305–6, 309–10
nuclear arsenals and, 237, 308, 309, 311–12
space weaponry and, 260, 299–300, 312
Dias, Bartolomeu, 81
differentiation, 384–85
Dingell, John, 418–19n
diplomacy
deterrence and, 312–15
Outer Space Treaty and, 274, 313, 382, 503n
space diplomacy, 260–61, 312–13, 531n
directed-energy weapons, 240–41, 242
see also lasers
Dismantling the Empire (Johnson), 35
Dobrynin, Anatoly F., 292
Doel, Ronald E., 223
Dollond, John, 111, 130, 131
Dollond, Peter, 111, 130
Dolman, Everett C., 280–81, 330, 489n
Doomsday Clock, 310–11
Dos Passos, John, 161
double concave lenses, 129
double convex lenses, 129
Dowd, Maureen, 36
Draper, John William, 144
Dr. Strangelove (movie), 300
Duffner, Robert W., 152–53
Dyna-Soar spaceplane, 279
Earth-observation satellit
es, see remote-sensing satellites
Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company, 144
Eastman Kodak, 203, 205
Ebertin, Elsbeth, 57–58, 61
Echo communication satellite, 278
eclipses
and ancient astronomy, 44–49, 423–24n
cycle of lunar eclipses, 56
daguerreotype of solar eclipse, 144
effects on history, 45–49
evidence of Earth’s slowing rotation, 46
Eddington, Arthur, 400–401
Edison, Thomas Alva, 220
education in science and engineering
decline in US share of degrees, 22, 31
reaction to Sputnik launch, 270, 490n
Egypt
ancient astronomy, 39, 40, 42
early ships, 68, 432n
Nabta Playa, 42
pyramids at Giza, 42
solar calendar with 365 days, 40, 422–23n
Einstein, Albert, 182, 215, 218
Eisenhower, Dwight D.
Atoms for Peace, 287, 498–99n
on military-industrial complex, 26, 161, 404
military space budget, 282
military space efforts, 273–74, 278–79
moratorium on nuclear testing, 307
presidential exit speech, 26, 161
Project Plowshare, 287, 499n
proposed ban on weapons in space, 281
quest for both peace and preparedness, 275–78, 493–94n
satellite proposals, 267, 271, 488n, 491n
science advisor appointed, 269, 491n
Supreme Allied Commander in Europe, 269, 275
Vela Hotel satellites and, 216
electric telegraphs, 118, 123
electromagnetic pulse, 290
electromagnetic spectrum, 100–101, 168–69, 170–71, 199–200, 209, 213–14
Elements of Geometry (Euclid), 44, 107
elements, origin of, 400–403
Ellsberg, Daniel, 248
empire building
American empire, 34–36
by Portuguese, 81, 83–84, 87–88
and science, in eighteenth century, 90–91, 95, 439n
in seventeenth century, 90
by Spain, 87–88
Enceladus, 196–97
Energiya, 359, 363
Energomash, 363
England, warfare in seventeenth century, 108–9, 443–44n
Enlargement of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 502n
Enola Gay, 457n
entanglement (photons), 313, 351
ephemerides, 82, 94
Eratosthenes, 87, 434n, 437n
Euclid, 44, 107
Eudoxus of Cnidus, 71, 72, 73
European Defence Agency, 327
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), 328
European Launcher Development Organisation, 326
European Space Agency
ACES (Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space), 339
collaboration with China, 377
collaboration with Russia, 364
Columbus laboratory linked to ISS, 368
nonmilitary mandate, 326–27, 329–30
recent successes, 32
science spending, 520n, 533n
space weather prediction, 160–61
weather satellites, 341
European Space Research Organisation, 326
European Union
code of space conduct, 397
Common Security and Defence Policy, 327
military spending, 327, 512n
nonmilitary interest in space, 22, 326–27
reliance on soft power, 326
space spending, 329
“Space Strategy for Europe,” 328–29
stability as vital goal, 325–26
terrorist attacks, 327
on threats to global security, 14
ExoMars, 364
exoplanets, detection of, 175, 399
Experiments and Observations on Electricity (Franklin), 123
Explorer 1 satellite, 269
Explorer XI satellite, 213–14
exports of military space systems, 300, 505n
eye (human), abilities and limitations of, 100–101
Fair Housing Act of 1968, 288
FAST (Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope), 182
“Fat Man” (Nagasaki), 303, 307, 505n
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (NASA), 199
financial crisis of 2008–2009, 3–4
Finnish Meteorological Institute, 385
First Battle of Bull Run, 124, 448n, 449n
first use of nuclear weapons, as option, 308, 309
Five D’s: deception, disruption, denial, degradation, and destruction, 322
Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis, 144
Flamsteed, John, 52, 94
FOBS (Fractional Orbital Bombardment System), 286
F-117A stealth fighter, 197, 198, 332, 470n, 514n
food for mariners, 84–85
Food Stamps Act of 1964, 288
Fort Sumter, 124
Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon, 92, 133, 144
Fowler, William, 402
Fox Talbot, William Henry, 142, 455n
Franklin, Benjamin, 112, 123
Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 146
Fraunhofer lines, 146, 147
Frederick the Great, 111, 130, 446n
“freedom of space” issue after Sputnik, 268–69, 301, 505n
frequency, defined, 100
Frisius, Regnier Gemma, 95, 441n
Fugate, Robert, 155
Fukushima nuclear disaster, 255
Furst, Luther C., 449n
fusion bombs, 304, 389, 390, 391, 474n
fusion in stars, 304, 389, 390, 391, 400
Gagarin, Yuri, 157, 264, 282
Galaxy IV satellite failure, 478n
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 55
Galilei, Galileo
astrology, 49, 52–53
discoveries with telescopes, 52, 103, 109–10
drawings, 141, 202, 455n
patronage and telescopes, 105–6, 160, 173, 442–43n
telescope construction, 102, 107, 110, 441–42n
Galileo global positioning system, 160, 329, 337
GAMBIT (KH-8) satellites, 205
gamma-ray bursts, 214–15, 217, 473–74nn
gamma rays
detection of, 199, 213–18
discovery of, 171, 213
Earth’s atmosphere and, 214
generation by cosmic rays, 218
Garwin, Richard L., 249, 250–51, 377, 482n, 485n
General Dynamics, 11, 18
Generall Historie of Virginia (Smith), 436n
general theory of relativity, 182
geodetic meridian, 99
Geographike Hyphegesis (Ptolemy), 50, 78, 85, 86, 87
George III (king), 96
geostationary orbit (GEO), 278–79, 494n
Germany
air war against in World War II, 189–90
export and manufacturing after World War I, 137–39, 453n, 454nn
exports before World War I, 137, 453n
radar development, 186, 465n
rearming in 1930s, 186
withdrawal from the League of Nations, 139
Gettysburg, 126–27, 449nn
Giacconi, Riccardo, 225, 226
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, 182–83
glass, 131
see also optical glass
Glaucon, 46
global GDP, 403, 533n
Global Positioning System (GPS)
accuracy and precision, 332, 333, 336–37, 513n
Air Force control of, 158, 337
Beidou system (China), 337
cruise missiles and, 332, 346
in first Gulf War, 332–36
funding, 337, 516n
Galileo system (EU), 160, 329, 337
and geodetic meridian, 99
GLONASS system (Russia
), 160, 337–38, 362, 363, 516n
GPS III, 337
ionosphere and, 333
in Iraq War, 336, 346, 348
jamming of, 333, 515n, 516n
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, 278, 332, 335–36
overview, 158, 332–33, 339–40
selective availability, 336
smart bombs and, 335
global security, 14–15
GLONASS global positioning system, 160, 337–38, 362, 363, 516n
GNSS (global navigation satellite systems), 337
Goddard, Robert, 192
Goebbels, Paul Joseph, 58, 59, 60, 61–62, 428n, 429n
Goerner, F. G., 59
Goldberg, Arthur J., 292
Goldwater, Barry, 288
Gonçalves, Lopes, 81
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 251, 307, 358, 359–60, 361, 522n
gravitational tractor, 256
gravitational waves, 198–99, 399, 461n
Gray, Colin, 335–36, 515n
Great Britain
Chain Home radar network, 187–88, 467n
demand for military production in World War I, 135–36
exports before World War I, 137, 453n
radar astronomy, 191
radar development, 186–87, 465–66nn
Great Pacific Garbage Patch, 238
Greece and the Greeks
ancient astronomy, 44–47
Antikythera Mechanism, 44–45, 422–23n
Athens’ dependence on grain shipments, 69
geometry, 44
on solstices, equinoxes, and directions, 68
Syracuse, siege of, 45, 47
Greenwich Mean Time, 441n
Griffin, Michael, 25, 26, 376
Guicciardini, Francesco, 52
guide stars, 153, 154, 155, 457n
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 500n
Gulf War
antiwar movement, 10
communication satellites and, 340–41, 517n
factors leading up to, 331, 513n
as first space war, 330–31
Global Positioning System (GPS) use in, 332–36
intensive bombing, 330, 331
Kuwait invasion and, 9–10, 330, 331, 334, 341, 513n
news coverage and public reaction, 7–8, 10, 341
Scud missiles, 341
shortage of GPS receivers, 333–34
spy satellites and, 342–44
weather satellites and, 341–42
see also Operation Desert Storm
Gutenberg, Johannes, 442n
H-1 chronometer, 96
H-4 chronometer, 96, 97, 441n
Hadfield, Chris, 414n
Hagen, John, 489n
Hall, Chester Moor, 129–30
Halliburton, 11, 25
Hanno (king), 73, 434n
Hardy, John W., 156
Harley, J. Brian, 91–92
Harman, Jane, 412n
Harriot, Thomas, 102
Harrison, John, 95, 96–97, 441n
Harvey, Brian, 374
Harwit, Martin, 151, 223, 457n, 475n
Hayabusa spacecraft (Japan), 355
Hayden Planetarium, 15, 132, 366, 451n
healing, vision of future avenue to, 383–86
Accessory to War Page 67