by Red Pine
Cox, Collett. “On the Possibility of a Nonexistent Object of Consciousness: Sarvastivadin and Darshtantika Theories” in the Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 11, no. 1, 1988.
Deva (fl. 250), aka Aryadeva . Student of Nagarjuna and author of several seminal works that helped lay the foundation of the Madhyamaka interpretation of the Dharma. The Heart Sutra commentary attributed to him is preserved in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 629-634.
devas . One of six major categories of being. Devas represent the more fortunate karmic outcome of delusion and inhabit the various heavens on Mount Sumeru, where they live long and blissful lives until the karma that got them there runs out. They are, however, capable of understanding the Dharma and are often present in the Buddha’s audience in Mahayana sutras.
dharani . An incantation with mnemonic value as well as spiritual potency. Also see mantra.
dharma . Derived from the root dhri, meaning “to grasp,” this word refers to anything held to be real: an object, an event, a teaching, a code. For students of the Abhidharma, it referred to such basic entities of the mind as the Five Skandhas. When capitalized, it refers to the teaching of a buddha.
dharma-kaya . The real body of every buddha and synonymous with reality.
Dharmaskandha . A selection of the Buddha’s sermons in Shravasti focusing on the dharmas that later formed the matrika (matrices) of the Abhidharma. This is considered the first or second of the seven canonical Abhidharma works of the Sarvastivadins and is given a date of c. 300 B.C. While the Chinese attribute this work to Maudgalyayana, Yashomitra ascribes it to Shariputra. A number of commentators have noted its similarity to the Vibhanga of the Sthaviravadins, and both texts probably share a common ancestor.
Dhirgha Agama . One of four collections of the Buddha’s sermons preserved in Sanskrit by the Sarvastivadins. The only extant version is a Chinese translation by Buddhayashas. It is similar but not identical to the Pali Digha Nikaya of the Sthaviravadins.
Diamond Sutra, Vajracchedika . Next to the Heart Sutra, the best known of all Prajnaparamita texts and the subject of many studies and commentaries. Its central teaching is the nature of a buddha’s body. There are numerous translations and also several commentaries in English.
Eighteen Elements of Perception, ashtadasha dhatu . The explanation of our awareness as a combination of the Six Powers and the Six Domains of Sensation and the Six Kinds of Consciousness that arise from their conjunction.
Fa-ch’eng (fl. 840), aka Chos-grub . Tibetan monk who lived in Tunhuang and translated a number of Buddhist works from Chinese into Tibetan. He also translated the longer version of the Heart Sutra from Tibetan into Chinese. His translation, however, was not added to the Chinese Tripitaka until a copy turned up in the Tunhuang Caves (P4882).
Fa-tsang (643-712) . Born in Ch’ang-an of Sogdian parents from Samarkand, he learned Sanskrit and a number of Central Asian languages at an early age. Not long after becoming a monk, he was invited to participate in the translation projects of Hsuan-tsang and Yi-ching. But he is better known for his own essays and commentaries and as the principal patriarch of the Hua-yen (Avatamsaka) school of Chinese Buddhism. His Heart Sutra commentary, composed in 702, became so popular that it was, itself, the object of commentaries. His commentary, along with a subcommentary by Chung-hsi, is preserved in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 679-712.
Fa-yueh (653-743), aka Dharmacandra . Monk from Eastern India who arrived in Ch’ang-an in 732 via Kucha. Although primarily interested in medical texts, he is credited with the first Chinese translation of the longer version of the Heart Sutra, which he is said to have brought with him from Kucha. Before leaving Ch’ang-an in 741, he also produced a second, revised translation of the longer version. The revised translation is in the Chinese Tripitaka, while his initial version is preserved in the Japanese Tripitaka (cf. Fang Ku’ang-ch’ang, ibid., pp. 5-6).
Fang K’uang-ch’ang . Chinese Buddhist scholar. His collection and review of Chinese translations of the Heart Sutra and early commentaries, several of which he has revised on the basis of Tunhuang copies, is invaluable: Po-jo hsin-ching yi-chu chich’eng (Shanghai: Shanghai Kuchi Publishing Company, 1994).
Five Skandhas, panca skandha . The aspects into which early Buddhists analyzed our experiential world—form, sensation, perception, memory, and consciousness—and which formed the basis for the subsequent development of the Abhidharma.
Four Elements .The division of the material world into earth, water, wind, and fire.
Four Teachings . Chinese monks used several schemes for classifying the Buddha’s teachings according to his audience. The one used by Ming-k’uang agrees with that of the Tientai patriarch Chih-yi (538-597) and includes the Hinayana Teaching for shravakas, the Common Teaching for pratyekas, the Special Teaching for beginning bodhisattvas, and the Complete Teaching for fully realized bodhisattvas.
Four (Noble) Truths, catvari (arya) satyani . A frequent subject of the Buddha’s teaching and also the subject of his first sermon at Sarnath: suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path leading to the cessation of suffering: duhkha, samudaya, nirodha, marga.
Frauwallner, Erich. Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
Fukui, Fumimasa. Hannya shingyo no kenkyu (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 1987).
Heart Sutra, (Prajnaparamita) Hridaya Sutra . This briefest of texts contrasts the teaching of Prajnaparamita with the Abhidharma of the Sarvastivadins and presents, in place of their standard conceptual matrix, a mantra as the essence of its teaching. This sutra was translated from Sanskrit into Chinese in two versions, an earlier, shorter version and a later, longer one. There are many translations and also commentaries in English.
Hinayana . The Lesser Path of Buddhism. A term coined by the Mahayana to distinguish its compassion-based practices from sects or individuals whose ascetic practices aimed at personal salvation and nirvana.
Hsuan-tsang (602-664) . China’s most famous Buddhist monk. Although better known for his journey to India and back, he was one of the most prolific translators of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Despite their faithfulness to the letter of his texts, his translations are also noted for their awkward phraseology. The fact that his version of the Heart Sutra is one of the most chanted texts in the Buddhist liturgy is apparently the result of his use of Kumarajiva’s earlier version.
Huai-shen (1077-1132) , aka Tz’u-shou. Zen monk of the Yunmen sect. His commentary appears in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 781-792.
Hui-ching (578-650) . Chinese monk known for his literary and lecturing abilities. Asked by Emperor T’ai-tsung to help Hsuan-tsang translate the sutras he had brought back from India, Hui-ching declined on the pretext of illness. His commentary, which was among the most influential during the T’ang dynasty, appears in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 411-424. For the most part, I have used the revised edition of Fang K’uang-ch’ang based on a comparison of the Tripitaka edition with copies found in the Tunhuang Caves.
Hui-chung (d. 775) . Although he was considered one of the five dharma heirs of Hui-neng, the Sixth Patriarch of Zen, Hui-chung was critical of other members of the Southern School of Zen, such as Ma-tsu, for their disdain of scriptures and offhand interpretations of the Dharma. He was the teacher of a series of emperors and was given the appellation Teacher of the Nation by Emperor Hsuan-tsung. His commentary, which reflects the radical attitude toward enlightenment of the early Zen school, is preserved, together with those of two Sung dynasty monks, in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 781-792.
Hui-neng (638-713) . Zen’s Sixth Patriarch and founder of its Southern School.
Hung-jen (602-675) . Fifth Patriarch of Zen and teacher of Hui-neng, Shen-hsiu, Chih-shen, and Ching-chueh. The use of the Diamond Sutra in place of the Lankavatara Sutra in teaching the principle
s of Zen is said to have begun with him.
Indra, aka Shakra . King of the Devas. His residence is at the summit of Mount Sumeru. He serves as a major figure in Prajnaparamita texts and frequently asks questions of the Buddha or his disciples.
Jain . Member of the religion begun in India by Mahavira in the fifth century B.C. emphasizing non-violence and liberation of the soul.
Jnanamitra. Indian author of a commentary on the Heart Sutra about whom next to nothing is known. His exposition was translated into English by Donald Lopez in Elaborations on Emptiness (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1996, pp. 141-150).
kalpa .A period of time from the creation to the destruction of the universe. An empty kalpa is the period of time between universes.
Kanishka (fl. A. D. 100-125) . The greatest of the Kushan kings and advocate of religious diversity. His support of Buddhism can be seen in his use of the images of Shakyamuni and Maitreya on his coins and in the many Buddhist legends surrounding his reign. According to the inscription on his stupa, he was a supporter of the Sarvastivadin sect and is credited with convening a major Buddhist council, often called the Fourth Council.
Katyayaniputra (fl. 270 B.C.) . One of the leaders of the Sarvastivadin delegation at the Third Buddhist Council held in Pataliputra (Patna) in 267 B.C. To clarify the Sarvastivadin position vis-à-vis the Sthaviravadins, he later compiled the Jnanaprasthana (Source of Knowledge), which became the most studied of all Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts. There are two Chinese translations, but the text is no longer extant in Sanskrit, except for fragments.
Kinsley, David. Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
K’uei- chi (632-682), aka Tz’u- en .The best known of Hsuan-tsang’s disciples, he wrote commentaries on many of the Yogacara texts translated by his teacher. He also wrote commentaries on the scriptures of other sects, but from a Yogacara viewpoint. In the case of the Heart Sutra, however, he commented from both the Yogacara and the Madhyamaka perspectives. His commentary has been translated into English in its entirety by Heng-ching as part of the BDK translation series. The Chinese is preserved in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 436-478.
Kumarajiva (d. 413) . A renowned monk from the Silk Road oasis of Kucha. Originally a follower of the Sarvastivadin sect, he was converted to the Mahayana while in India and came to China at the request of the reigning emperor. Generally considered the greatest translator of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, he often took advantage of the earlier work of other translators and focused on the spirit rather than the letter of his texts.
Kushan Empire. Established by the nomadic Yueh-chih in the regions north and south of the Hindu Kush Mountains during the first century B.C. It formed the backdrop, if not the seedbed, for the development and spread of Mahayana Buddhism.
Lankavatara Sutra . This sutra was translated at least three times into Chinese and was reportedly used by Bodhidharma and others in the early transmission of Zen in China. This is an early product of the Yogacara school of Indian Buddhism and presents that school’s Mind-Only doctrine in the form of a dialogue between the Buddha and the bodhisattva Mahamati. There is an English translation by D. T. Suzuki.
Lao-tzu (c. 604-516 B.C.) . Taoist patriarch and author of the Taoteching, probably the most translated book in the world next to the Bible and the Bhagavad-gita.
Leonard, George. The Silent Pulse (New York: Bantam Books, 1981).
Lesser Path, aka Hinayana Buddhism . A term coined by Mahayana Buddhists to refer to those who focused on the personal attainment of nirvana in contrast to the liberation of all beings.
Li-yen (c. 710-795) . Buddhist monk from the Silk Road oasis of Kucha who assisted Fa-yueh and Prajna in their translations of the longer version of the Heart Sutra in Ch’ang-an.
Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra . This is one of three texts that form the basis of Pure Land Buddhism. It records the vows of the bodhisattva Dharmakara to create a pure land that can be reached by faith alone and from which one can then more easily understand the Dharma. The text is still extant in Sanskrit, and there are translations in Chinese, Tibetan, and English.
Lopez, Donald. Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sutra (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1996). See also his earlier effort: The Heart Sutra Explained: Indian and Tibetan Commentaries (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988).
Lotus Sutra . One of the earliest Mahayana texts and especially revered by China’s Tientai and Japan’s Nichiren sects. In addition to presenting the cosmic aspects of the Buddha, it encourages all beings to realize their own buddha-nature. There are a number of English translations.
Madhyamaka . The Middle Way school of Indian Buddhism founded by Nagarjuna and based on the Prajnaparamita teaching of emptiness.
Madhyamakakarika . One of the seminal texts of the Madhyamaka school of Indian Buddhism. Written by Nagarjuna, it presents the Madhyamaka position concerning causality as well as existence and non-existence. There are a number of English translations, ranging from the scholarly, by David Kalupahana, to the more literary, by Stephen Batchelor.
Maha Prajnaparamita Shastra . Nagarjuna’s magnum opus, this is a commentary on the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines. There is a French translation by Etienne Lamotte under the title Le Trait de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse.
Maha Prajnaparamita Sutra . This is an encyclopedic collection of Prajnaparamita scriptures. It was translated into Chinese by Hsuan-tsang and his staff from 660 to 663.
Mahavastu . Account of the Buddha’s life compiled by the Mahasanghikas, one of two sects that formed as a result of differences at Buddhism’s Second Council in 283 B.C.
Mahavibhasha Shastra . A collection of commentaries on Katyayaniputra’s Jnanaprasthana compiled by dozens, if not hundreds, of monks in Kashmir around A.D. 100-150. It is only extant in Chinese.
Mahavira . Founder of the Jain religion. He was a contemporary of Shakyamuni and taught the purification of the soul through non-violence as the principal means for attaining nirvana. Depending on whose dating one accepts for the Buddha, Mahavira entered Nirvana either around 490 B.C. or 390 B.C., or about seven years before the Buddha.
Mahayana . The Great Path or Great Vehicle, depending on the meaning one gives yana. This teaching aims at the liberation of all beings. It is also another name for the mind.
Mair, Victor. “The Heart Sutra and The Journey to the West” in Sino-Asiatica: Papers Dedicated to Professor Liu Ts’un-yan on the Occasion of His 85th Birthday (Wang Gungwu et al., editors, Canberra: Faculty of Asian Studies of the Australian National University, 2002).
Maitreya . The next buddha after Shakyamuni. Usually portrayed by Buddhists in East Asia as a rotund, smiling monk, his statue is often the first to greet visitors as they enter a Buddhist temple in East Asia. mantra . An incantation with spiritual potency composed of sounds that do not necessarily make sense.
Maudgalyayana . The childhood companion of Shariputra and one of the Buddha’s foremost disciples. He was known for his supernatural powers and is usually represented in art as standing on the Buddha’s left.
Maya . The wife of Shuddhodana and mother of the Buddha. She died seven days after giving birth to Shakyamuni and was reborn as the deva Santushita at the summit of Mount Sumeru.
Ming-k’uang (fl. 650) . Disciple of the Tientai patriarch Chang-an. His commentary, which interprets the Heart Sutra according to the Tientai doctrine of four levels of teaching (Hinayana, Common, Special, Complete), disappeared in China but made its way to Japan. It is preserved in the Supplement to the Tripitaka, vol. 41, pp. 656-659.
Monier-Williams, Monier (1819-1899). British Sanskrit scholar whose Sanskrit-English Dictionary, published in 1872 and based on the monumental Sanskrit-Deutsch Woerterbuch of Boehtlingk and Roth, remains the standard reference. It is available in reprint editions and online.
Mount Sumeru. This mountain forms the axis of every world a
nd is often used as a metaphor for the self. According to Buddhist cosmology, the summit is the second of six heavens in the Realm of Desire (the first heaven being halfway up the mountain, and the other four being above the summit). This is also the home of thirty-three devas, including Indra, their king, and Santushita, the former mother of Shakyamuni.