by John, Judith
… in 1491, Perkin Warbeck appeared on the scene … This time the pretender was a handsome 17-year-old servant who bore a marked similarity to Richard, Duke of York, Edward V’s brother.
Had the claim been true, Richard, Duke of York, would have had a stronger right to the throne than Henry. Warbeck’s pretence still presented a problem for Henry, especially as he was supported by Margaret of York, Richard’s aunt. She tutored Warbeck in courtly life and added truth to the lie by telling Warbeck all about the real Richard, which meant that his followers grew in number. As Simnel’s earlier attack from Ireland had proved unsuccessful and the Irish were not keen to aid a second pretender, Warbeck and his supporters turned to Scotland for help. The Scottish King, James IV, was eager to lend support to anyone who could topple the English King, although how far he truly believed Warbeck to be Richard, Duke of York, is unclear. Yet his support was unwavering – he even pledged to wed Warbeck to a noblewoman from his own family – and the Scots invaded England in Richard’s name in September 1496. As soon as James IV realized how unsuccessful and unpopular his decision had been he withdrew his support and returned. James IV later rid himself of Warbeck, sending him away on a ship aptly named Cuckoo, and made peace with Henry.
Warbeck refused to give up, turning next to the rebels in Cornwall who had been strongly opposed to the higher tax collections needed for Henry to secure the north of England against Scottish invaders. Warbeck gained their support and he, together with an army of around 6000 men, made their attack. Once again they did not get far. Henry, due to his suspicious nature, had kept an eye on Warbeck’s movements and sent his own forces to meet them at Glastonbury. Warbeck fled but was soon captured and thrown in the Tower of London, after being forced to parade through the streets of the capital, suffering the derision of the gathered crowds.
THE PRINCES IN THE TOWER
RICHARD III FIRST CLAIMED that he sent Edward V and his brother, Richard, Duke of York, to the Tower for their own safety in the run-up to Edward V’s coronation. It is rumoured that Richard III arranged the murder of the two princes to prevent anyone thwarting his usurpation of the throne. In 1674, the bones of two young boys were found buried deep beneath a staircase. They were believed to be the lost princes and were laid to rest in Westminster Abbey. However, in 1933 when the bones were examined yet again, experts were no longer certain that these were the bones of the princes; rather, they might be just a few of the countless victims the Tower had claimed during the centuries it was used as a prison. The curious tale of the princes in the Tower remains a mystery.
Henry VII is here pictured taking pity on the young pretender Lambert Simnel during his trial. It is thought that Simnel became a falconer after working in the palace kitchens.
Henry VII was not as lenient with Perkin Warbeck as he had been to Simnel. Warbeck was first made to suffer public humiliation before his luck ran out. Henry deemed the pretender too dangerous to live and he was hanged on 23 November 1499.
FACT OR FICTION: PRETENDER OR HEIR?
RUMOURS STILL EXIST as to whether there was any truth to Warbeck’s strongly asserted claims of being the real Richard, Duke of York, the rightful heir to the throne. While it is very unlikely that Warbeck was Richard, the resemblance he shared with his alleged father, Edward IV, means there was a chance that he was Edward’s illegitimate son. While nothing was ever proven, Edward had several illegitimate children that are known about and possibly many more, so there may be a grain of truth in these rumours.
But Warbeck was a chancer and still his quest for power did not end. Imprisoned in the Tower, Warbeck joined forces with the real Edward, Earl of Warwick. The two men even managed to escape in 1499 but were soon recaptured and immediately put to death, Henry finally tiring of the threat that both posed and having good reason for the execution.
Fighting for Peace
With Warbeck finally dealt with, Henry resolved to further strengthen his own borders against any other potential threats. While Ireland would remain a thorn in his side, he managed to make peace with Scotland. He and King James signed the Treaty of Ayton in 1497, which agreed peace between England and Scotland. It also stipulated that neither King could harbour a potential threat to the other King. To cement good relations, Henry also offered his daughter, Margaret, to James as his wife, thus further uniting the families. This union would later result in the Stuart family ruling England.
Warbeck fled but was soon captured and thrown in the Tower of London, after being forced to parade through the streets …
Margaret was only six when her father started discussing her marriage to James IV of Scotland, purely for reasons of political alliance. The couple were actually married in 1503, first by proxy on 25 January, then on 8 August on Margaret’s arrival in Edinburgh. This made her Margaret Queen of Scots. Despite it being a convenient alliance on both sides, James and Margaret were happy and loving, having six children together. Sadly, only one survived; James V, who became King of Scotland on his father’s death in 1513. Margaret then became Regent of Scotland, ruling until her infant son could take over as King. However, she gave up this right when she remarried Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus, in 1514. The Duke of Albany took over as Regent from 1515, taking control of James and his brother, Alexander until his death in December 1515. Margaret befriended Albany, only to take James back by force in 1524, where James was welcomed as the rightful King (under the guidance of advisors until he reached his majority at 18).
Mary’s Marriages
Henry VII’s other daughter, Mary, was also married for reasons of politics and the safeguarding of England. She was first betrothed to the Spanish Charles of Castile (who would later become Holy Roman Emperor), but in order to secure peace with France she married the French King, Louis XII, in 1514. He was 52 and she was merely 18 years old. Eager to produce an heir, they tried for children with vigour. Unfortunately for Louis, this brought about his sudden death just a few short months after their marriage. Mary did not fall pregnant before she was widowed and was glad to be rid of her much older husband.
MARGARET TUDOR
MARGARET TUDOR REMAINED an influential figure in politics, especially related to peace and cordiality between Scotland and England. Her personal life was tumultuous; she grew tired of her second husband’s womanizing and political agenda and angled for a divorce. This was finally granted in 1527, whereupon Margaret took her third husband in 1528. She and her new husband, Henry Stewart, became James V’s advisors and it was partly Margaret’s influence that secured continuing good relations with England and her brother, Henry VIII. Her private life continued to cause scandal as she again applied for divorce, but this was refused by James V. Her control over James was diminishing although James’ new wife, Mary of Guise, tried to reconcile them. Still married, Margaret died in 1541, reduced in standing and pining for England.
Merely a teenager when she married the thirty-year-old King James IV, Margaret Tudor is shown here making the long journey to Scotland to wed her future husband. It was hoped that their alliance would unite the thistle and the rose.
Just like his father before him, Henry VIII wanted his young, beautiful sister to make another marriage of alliance …
Just like his father before him, Henry VIII wanted his young, beautiful sister to make another marriage of alliance, but she had fallen in love with Charles Brandon, the Duke of Suffolk. The two were married in secret in 1515. When Henry found out he was furious, first calling for Brandon’s head as punishment for their disobedience. When he calmed down, he only made the couple pay a hefty fine for disobeying him. He was fond of his sister, but his affection for her waned when she opposed his divorce from Catherine of Aragon in favour of Anne Boleyn, whom Mary had disliked ever since Anne attended her wedding to Louis as maid of honour. Mary’s granddaughter was Lady Jane Grey, who would briefly rule England on the death of Edward VI.
Threats from Overseas
Relations with foreign monarchs could be complicated. As in Br
itain there were often sudden changes in rulers, which resulted in dramatic shifts in alliances between countries. In addition to securing his borders, Henry cleverly avoided war with Charles VIII, when the French king forced Anne, the heir to Brittany, into marriage, thus making Brittany part of France under his control. Henry had promised support to Brittany, so in 1492 he sent troops to Boulogne. This was a clever move. It fulfilled Henry’s bargain with Brittany and, as Charles was more interested in war with Italy than Britain, he wanted to avoid fighting on both sides of his country. The result was the Treaty of Étaples, securing peace between France and Britain. Charles also agreed to pay Henry and his army off with £250,000, a huge sum at the time.
Henry demonstrated his political proficiency once again by arranging a marriage between his eldest son, Arthur, and Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Spanish King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. At that time, Spain was a superpower and it was in Henry’s best interests to secure good relations. The marriage cemented their alliance, as did Catherine’s later re-marriage to Henry VIII after Arthur’s sudden death. This second marriage ensured that England and Spain remained allies, and also meant that Catherine’s sizeable dowry remained in Henry’s ever-growing coffers. Henry VII certainly took many steps to ensure peace and stability within England and with other countries.
Making Money
Despite his clever political alliances and peace treaties, Henry was never quite able to relax and enjoy his hard-won kingdom. He never forgot that there were many people with greater right to the throne than him. Henry’s deep-seated distrust of the nobility grew throughout his reign and he worked hard to limit their powers and riches, while continuing to add to his own.
Henry VII inherited a country in debt from the many battles fought during the Wars of the Roses. He was also keen to live ‘of his own’, meaning that he earned and spent his own money instead of directly taxing his countrymen for personal income. For a King this did not mean taking any sort of work. Rather, it meant making the most of financial loopholes that already existed for the monarchy. This was one area in which Henry and his advisors were experts.
Two of the most notorious of these advisors were Edmund Dudley and Richard Empson. They came from the gentry class, meaning that they were landowners and prominent, rich members of society. They were well-educated and ambitious, but generally did not have close ties to any of the nobility apart from Henry, meaning they were unlikely to have personal political agendas. As the burden of taxes and fines levied against the rich and poor alike worsened, stretching the borders of legality in every way, Dudley and Empson became more and more reviled.
Where the Money Came From
During his reign, Henry increased the value of crown lands and the rent earned from these lands by adding to them from the spoils of war. Anyone who was deemed a traitor to the crown lost lands and position, so any of Richard’s supporters were stripped of all privileges. Another area ripe for exploitation was the King’s ‘prerogative’. This covered the profits from fines levied against feudal disputes and perceived injustices. The prerogative also included paying a fine on inheritance of lands and taxing the very rich on earnings. Any king could have made a profit from these fines, but Henry was one of the first to uphold their payments rigorously. In addition to raising money for himself, Henry was determined to keep a tight cap on the wealth of his most powerful citizens.
… in 1502 disaster struck. Arthur died suddenly from unknown causes … just five months after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Henry was shocked and devastated by this sudden crisis.
Customs duties were another area from which Henry profited hugely. London’s port was always busy with merchant ships importing and exporting goods. Keeping the King happy meant the merchants could make a fortune, and even when Henry inflated the customs duties, the taxes had to be paid. Considering the vast wealth to be found abroad, it was in the merchants’ interests to pay up, no matter how galling they found the high taxes. Henry also saved money by not investing in foreign wars (a huge expense that could result in crippling debts). All in all, Henry left his country a significant treasure.
It is a fact that his eagerness to make money made Henry VII unpopular with many rich and powerful men. This risk of making enemies conflicted with his desire to be as secure on the throne as possible and could have ended up with disgruntled nobles banding together to overthrow him, replacing him with a more sympathetic monarch.
Being an astute politician, Henry must have considered this. However, he made sure that there was enough capital to prevent an attack on British soil if one should occur. Henry’s stockpiling hints at his underlying concern of one day experiencing the same type of uprising that enabled him to take back the crown from Richard. Having a surplus of funds at his disposal would mean that Henry could gather large forces at short notice, thereby safeguarding himself against potential usurpers.
Family Matters
Henry could feel secure about his ability to provide a male heir to the throne after his death. At the age of 39 he had fathered four children, two of whom were boys. His wife, Elizabeth, had provided him with the ‘heir and the spare’. His first-born son, Arthur, would be King on his death. Henry also had another son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, and two daughters, Margaret and Mary. Henry could feel confident that one of his sons would rule after him. As a bonus, he had two daughters who could be used to marry into political alliances, further strengthening the Tudor position. However, in 1502 disaster struck. Arthur died suddenly from unknown causes on 2 April, just five months after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Henry was shocked and devastated by this sudden crisis. He was also perceptive enough to know that he could not depend on his one remaining son surviving him as King. Elizabeth, despite being 36 years old (a very late age to become a mother in Tudor times), became pregnant again, to both their joy. However, this joy was curtailed as the baby was a girl. Even greater grief was soon to befall Henry. His new daughter was stillborn and his beloved wife followed her within a few short days.
Henry did think of marrying again, even considering Catherine of Aragon for himself at one stage. Yet the anxiety of leaving only one male heir to the throne never quite left him. He was grief-stricken and weakened by Elizabeth’s death, spending his remaining years keeping a close eye on his remaining son and heir, Henry, still under the influence of his mother, who even managed to outlive him by a few months.
Political Alliance Turned to Love
Henry and Elizabeth had been married for reasons of pure politics, but genuine devotion grew over time. It was their shared affection and their belief in establishing a legacy that made them try for another child on Arthur’s death. When this resulted in Elizabeth’s death, Henry was said to be devastated. He gave her a grand funeral – sumptuous ceremonies being one of the few circumstances in which Henry was willing to spend lavishly – before she was buried in his tomb at Westminster Abbey, where he would join her on his death.
Henry did think of marrying again, even considering Catherine of Aragon for himself at one stage. Yet the anxiety of leaving only one male heir to the throne never quite left him.
On the death of her first husband, the old and infirm King Louis XII of France, Mary Tudor intended to marry a man of her choosing. Mary is pictured here with her second husband, Charles Brandon, the Duke of Suffolk, whom she married in March 1515.
Charles VIII of France married the fourteen-year-old Anne of Brittany in 1491, despite her being married by proxy to Maximilian I in 1490!
Henry: Man and King
Henry VII is generally far less well-known or infamous than his son. On his death in 1509 of tuberculosis, the crowds were believed to be jubilant that Henry VIII was to take his place. Opinions of him as a voracious, suspicious miser abound and he is often compared unfavourably to his heir – Henry VIII certainly looked the part, more than his weaker, anxious-looking father, and was seen as a true King, to whom his subjects could look up to and admire. H
owever, Henry VII also loved to enjoy himself. He liked to hunt, watch court entertainments, such as jesters, minstrels and dancers, and enjoyed gambling to the extent of it being almost an addiction.
Henry VII writes to Ferdinand II and Isabella I about the forthcoming alliance between their children; Prince Arthur and Catherine of Aragon.
Henry VII is pictured here with his advisors, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley. Widely unpopular, they did not survive long after Henry VIII’s accession in 1509.
Only fifteen when he died, Arthur Tudor was never able to live up to his namesake, the legendary King Arthur. His brother, king in Arthur’s stead, would become a legend himself.
Henry VII left behind the legacy of a rich kingdom, in contrast to the debts left by Edward IV (which Richard III had tried but not succeeded to wipe out). He put in place treaties to ensure peace between England and potentially threatening nations abroad. Henry also developed a law enforcement system that meant the fragmented arrangement following the Wars of the Roses was under tight control. Significantly, he left his remaining son a more secure throne than he ever had. However, both Henry VII’s accomplishments and defeats have been largely overshadowed by Henry VIII’s extraordinary personality and actions, and the sensational and scandalous Tudors who followed.
Henry VII in his deathbed at Richmond Palace in 1509. The same mourners would soon celebrate his son’s succession.
MARGARET AND MARRIAGE
EDMUND TUDOR, HENRY VI’S half-brother and Henry VII’s father, was Margaret’s second husband, despite her marrying him as soon as she was of canonical age (12 years old). Her first husband was John de la Pole, to whom she was married in 1444 at the age of one! This marriage was dissolved in 1453 because Margaret was not of marriageable age and because she and de la Pole were related. Margaret was betrothed to Edmund even before her first marriage was dissolved and the two were married in 1455. Margaret was pregnant when Edmund died the following year, having contracted the plague while in captivity. Jasper cared for Margaret following his brother’s death. Not surprisingly, Margaret saw Edmund as her first husband. She would go on to marry twice more after his death.