by John, Judith
There was now a quandary over what to do with Church lands. Purchased by wealthy nobles who had no intention of giving them up, Mary had to reach an agreement with the council and Church over ownership. In the end, profit won out over good intentions and the lands remained private property.
Contrary to popular belief, Mary was not keen to cause people suffering. In her early years as Queen there had to be a good reason for her to condemn anyone to death. Protestant leaders were given a choice of exile to another country, reconciliation to Catholicism or punishment. It is thought that around 800 people left England under Mary to avoid this punishment and maintain their Protestant faith.
Stephen Gardiner was Bishop of Winchester and Mary’s Lord Chancellor. Gardiner had been involved in Henry VIII’s annulment from Catherine of Aragon. Despite this, he and Mary fervently agreed on religion and Gardiner crowned Mary during her coronation.
One exception to Mary’s magnanimous nature was Thomas Cranmer. Here, the bile ran deep. Not only had Cranmer been integral in propagating Protestantism to an extreme level, it had also been Cranmer who pronounced Henry and Catherine’s marriage null and void, leaving Henry free to cast Mary and Catherine aside. This was a sin that Mary was not willing to pardon and is an example of how determined she could be. Believing that God had made her Queen to restore the country to its state of grace, Mary saw herself as saving souls instead of making martyrs.
Cranmer went as far as accepting papal supremacy and transubstantiation, which he had personally branded heresy.
Cranmer stood trial for treason on 13 November 1553 and was found guilty. He languished in prison until another trial commenced in 1554. It was not until he had watched Latimer and Ridley being burned at the stake that Cranmer recanted, eventually making several repudiations of his Protestant beliefs, saying that he had turned back to Catholicism. Cranmer went as far as accepting papal supremacy and transubstantiation, which he had personally branded heresy. Technically, Mary no longer had grounds with which to execute Cranmer. Ignoring a further recantation and the law of reprieve that should have been granted to Cranmer, Mary allowed him the chance to make a further, public recantation prior to his execution. However, by this stage he may have believed his death to be inevitable. Cranmer denied his earlier recantations and proclaimed himself a true believer of the Protestant faith, plunging the hand that had signed his recantations into the fire to punish it. The man who wrote The Book of Common Prayer and largely shaped Anglican religion for hundreds of years was duly burned at the stake for his treason and previous crimes, dying a martyr.
Cranmer plunges his right hand into the flames that lick around his body, fulfilling a promise he made on the day he died: ‘forasmuch as my hand hath offended... therefore my hand shall first be punished; for when I come to the fire it shall first be burned.’
REGINALD POLE
REGINALD POLE WAS the third son of Margaret Pole, the Countess of Salisbury. Margaret was Mary’s governess and her fortunes often followed those of Mary. Reginald had served Henry VIII prior to Mary, but fell out of favour when he refused to support Henry’s divorce from Catherine. Henry took harsh revenge by executing members of his family, and Pole was exiled until 1554.
He was briefly considered as a potential suitor of Mary’s before being made the last ever Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury in 1556. Thought to be harsh, the level of Pole’s involvement in the Marian Persecutions is disputed, but some now believe that he was inclined to leniency. He died on 17 November 1558, the same day as Mary I, during an influenza epidemic.
This portrait of Philip II was painted by the Italian painter Tiziano Vecellio, better known as Titian. Titian painted many works for Philip II, including this portrait, which was sent to Mary after she expressed interest in fulfilling Charles V’s desire for the union.
PHILIP II OF SPAIN
ON MARY’S DEATH, Philip proposed a union between himself and Elizabeth I, only to be rebuffed by the Protestant Virgin Queen. He later showed his displeasure when he sent the full might of the Spanish Armada against England under her rule (although this was to fail spectacularly).
Philip was a man of such contrasts – pious and deeply Catholic on the one hand, but capable of being cruel and unscrupulous, especially to Protestants. Hated by the English, he was loved and respected by his own countrymen and women, bringing great riches to his beloved Spain.
Cranmer denied his earlier recantations … plunging the hand that had signed his recantations into the fire to punish it.
But Mary was far from finished. Her aim was to stamp out Protestantism and heresy at any cost, restoring her country to its previous greatness.
Union with Spain
Shortly after her accession, Mary – eager to secure her line with male heirs – started looking around for a husband. This time she was able to make up her own mind. Whoever he was, he had to be Catholic.
Now 37 years old, Mary looked at potential suitors from England, such as Edward Courtenay, a favourite of Mary’s whom she made Earl of Devon, and Reginald Pole, the son of Mary’s old governess who had always supported her mothers’ marriage to Henry. (Pole would become a staunch ally of Mary’s but her own laws on marrying clergymen put paid to any unlikely union between the two.) However, in her eagerness to reunite the Church of England with Rome, Mary sought the advice of Charles V, whom she had once said could choose a husband for her. Unsurprisingly, Charles chose his only son, Philip II of Spain.
However much Mary believed herself to be in love, her choice of marriage to Philip was political and proof of her commitment to a Catholic country. Unfortunately, many of her subjects did not appreciate the idea of a foreigner on the English throne.
This picture shows the rack: a typical medieval torture device used for extracting information. Unfortunate victims were strapped on by their wrists and ankles, then a handle was turned that stretched the victim’s whole body, causing excruciating pain.
Philip II, King of Spain, receives the rulership of the Netherlands from his father Emperor Charles V, in 1556.
To put Philip on equal footing with his bride, Charles presented him with the Kingdoms of Naples and Jerusalem.
Philip was in line to inherit his father’s vast empire on his death and he was a devout Catholic. To put Philip on equal footing with his bride, Charles presented him with the Kingdoms of Naples and Jerusalem. In principle, the union was a good one. However, Philip was ten years younger than his bride and viewed the union as purely political. There was also huge outcry from the English council, who were appalled at the thought of a foreigner becoming King. As a man, Philip could take over rule of England on Mary’s death. This was unthinkable.
Unfortunately, Mary would not be moved. She had made her decision, based in part on a portrait of Philip by Titian that had been sent to her. Girlishly imagining herself in love, Mary was delighted with her husband-to-be, although it is thought that Philip was not so happy when he first saw her in the flesh! She was also happy to make a union with Spain, her beloved mother’s country. A compromise took place, meaning that Philip was King for the duration of the marriage only. He was unable to make any proclamation or sign any treaty on his own – possibly a sensible rule, as Philip spoke no English – and he needed his wife to co-rule with him on every detail and could not appoint any foreigners to the English council. Another stipulation was that England was under no obligation to support Spain in acts of war. Philip was allowed the concession of it being treason for anyone to deny his authority. He reluctantly agreed to the marriage treaty and the couple wed on 25 July 1554.
Edward Courtenay, Mary’s potential suitor … expected her to marry him, but he quickly turned his affections towards Elizabeth …
Wyatt Rebellion
One of the most significant outcomes of Mary’s proposed union was the passionate public outcry. Led largely by Protestants, a rebellion broke out in March 1554 that called for Mary to marry an Englishman. While the reasons given were mainly political, with subjec
ts wanting to hold on to their sovereignty and not let it fall into the hands of foreign powers, Mary also suffered a backlash against her strict religious reforms. A plot developed in which the rebels would converge on London. If Mary insisted on marrying Philip she would be replaced by Elizabeth, who would then marry Edward Courtenay in Mary’s place.
Led by Thomas Wyatt, James Croft, Peter Carew and Henry Grey (Jane Grey’s father) – all influential landowners – the original intent was to gather forces from around the country and lead an organized attack on London on 18 March. Edward Courtenay, Mary’s potential suitor, showed his true colours by encouraging the rebellion with no thought to the consequences for Mary. It may be that he truly cared for Mary and expected her to marry him, but he quickly turned his affections towards Elizabeth when it became apparent that Mary had no intention of doing so. Courtenay was exiled soon after the rebellion, losing the chance to wed either sister.
The whole rebellion started to unravel when a plot was suspected. Simon Renard, the Spanish ambassador and Bishop Gardiner joined forces to protect the Queen. Courtenay was arrested and revealed everything. Refusing to back down, the date for the attack was brought forward and Wyatt managed to raise a substantial force, occupying the town of Rochester. Troops were sent to disperse the rebellion, but the Queen’s potential marriage had become so unpopular that many soldiers joined the rebels, who now numbered upwards of 4000 men. With tension mounting, Mary agreed to hear Wyatt’s demands. It was here that the overconfident Wyatt lost support. Instead of voicing his original fears about Mary’s marriage to Philip, Wyatt demanded that she surrender the Tower of London to him and place herself under his control. Mary quickly followed up with her famous speech at the Guildhall, which secured her much sympathy and support.
Mary had the charisma and charm of her bluff, hearty father. Her speech cleverly combined this with vulnerability, turning her gender into a positive aspect. Queen Mary assured her people of her deep love for them and promised that she would seek advice on her marriage, following whatever course was best for the country. The Queen’s stirring speech remains emotional:
By their answers, the marriage is found to be the least of their quarrel; for, swerving from their former demands, they now arrogantly requite the GOVERNANCE OF OUR PERSON, the KEEPING OF OUR TOWN, and the PLACING OF OUR COUNCILLORS. What I am, loving subjects, yet know your Queen, to whom, at my coronation, ye promised allegiance and obedience, I was then wedded to the realm, and to the laws of the same, the spousal ring whereof I wear here on my finger, and it never has and never shall be left off.
I cannot tell you how naturally a mother loveth her children, for I never had any, but if the subjects may be loved as a mother doth her child, then assure yourselves that I, your sovereign lady and your Queen, do earnestly love and favour you. I cannot but think you love me in return; and thus, bound in concord, we shall be able I doubt not, to give these rebels a speedy overthrow.
I am neither so desirous of wedding, nor so precisely wedded to my will, that I needs must have a husband. Hitherto I have lived a virgin, and I doubt not, with God’s grace, to live still. But if, as my ancestors have done, it might please God that I should leave you a SUCCESSOR to be your GOVERNOR, I trust you would rejoice thereat; also; I know it would be to your comfort. Yet, if I thought this marriage would endanger any of you, my loving subjects, or the royal estate of this English realm, I would never consent thereto nor marry while I lived. On the word of a Queen I assure you, that if the marriage appear not before the court of Parliament, nobility and commons, for the singular benefit of the whole realm, then will abstain not only from this, but from any other.
THOMAS WYATT THE YOUNGER
Thomas Wyatt the Younger (named so to distinguish him from his father, Sir Thomas Wyatt, the poet and one of Henry VII’s ambassadors) was a Catholic, but his experience of viewing the Spanish Inquisition as a youngster had left a powerful mark on him. He became staunchly anti-Spanish and was utterly opposed to Mary’s foreign marriage. Wyatt was supported by other nobles, gathering many followers. However, he lost ground when he arrogantly demanded that Mary should place herself under his control. He was also a previous suitor of Anne Boleyn before her ill-fated marriage.
Painted by Sarah, Countess of Essex in 1825, this portrait depicts Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger in a classical style, perhaps to emphasise the heroic nature of his rebellion.
Thomas Wyatt was executed for treason on 11 April 1554. The executioner is pictured holding up Wyatt’s head for the gathered crowds to see. Wyatt’s head was later displayed in a gallows at Hay Hill near Hyde Park in London, before being stolen on 17 April.
While Wyatt did make it to Southwark in February 1554, the city of London remained closed to the rebels, held fast by Mary’s supporters. Some supporters reached the outskirts of London, but the overwhelming might of the Queen’s army broke up the rebellion. Wyatt later surrendered and was executed along with around 90 rebels. Mary was willing to forgive to a certain extent – she pardoned many of the remaining rebels – but an example had to be made to prove she was not weak. Consequently, Lady Jane Grey and her husband were also executed along with her father Henry.
But there was one person whose involvement could have led to execution. Elizabeth would have benefited on the success of the rebellion by becoming Queen. Here, Mary had to tread very carefully. She was already suspicious of her sister and annoyed that Elizabeth would not accept Catholicism herself. Now, additional suspicion of her involvement with the rebel’s plot led to Elizabeth being imprisoned in the Tower and interrogated. Elizabeth denied any involvement or knowledge of the plots and there was no proof to contradict her statements. With no grounds to press for treason, but still wary of her sister, Mary had Elizabeth placed under house arrest at Woodstock Palace, where she remained for almost a year.
Mary had to tread very carefully. She was already suspicious … and annoyed that Elizabeth would not accept Catholicism herself.
Turmoil and Misfortune
Mary went ahead with her marriage to Philip under the conditions attached by the Privy Council, meaning that England was safe from falling into the hands of the Spanish. Mary had gained the husband and union with Spain she so desired, but the recent rebellion was a taste of things to come.
Mary’s religious policy continued. Heresy laws were reinstated, which led to the brutal and hugely unpopular Marian Persecutions. This alone would have been enough to diminish support for the Queen. In addition to other unfortunate events, Mary quickly became uniformly feared and reviled.
Home and Away
Most of Ireland was still under English rule, although there had been rumblings of discontent for decades. Mary tried to quell any further rebellions by settling English colonists throughout the Midlands to reduce these attacks. Ireland would continue to threaten English peace well into Elizabeth’s reign.
Philip had long tried to convince Mary to support Spain in a war with France. While under no obligation to do so under the terms of their marriage treaty, various French plots to depose Mary meant that in 1557, war was declared with France. This led to strained relations with the papacy, as Pope Paul IV was an ally of France. Things got far worse when the French took back Calais in January 1558. This was a huge loss of prestige for England, who had managed to keep this toehold in France for over two centuries. The war was also costly at a time when the country needed every penny it could spare. Mary was to shoulder the blame and humiliation as the war was seen as a result of her marriage to Philip.
Life at home was hard under Mary. While much of this was nothing to do with her decisions, it nevertheless made things uncomfortable. Heavy rains meant that floods ruined harvest after harvest. Food was scarce and famines were becoming all the more common. Trade was low, especially with cloth, and the Spanish trade routes had tied up many other opportunities. Mary tried hard to counteract the debasement of the pound that had started under Henry VIII, but her rule was not long enough to see any benefit from this.
She also sought to open up new trade routes and commercial prospects, with seafaring adventurers seeking links for trade. Had she ruled for longer than five years, the tide might have turned and England may have started to see a profit. As it was, by early 1558 things looked bleak for Mary and for England.
Despite Mary’s impassioned speech to her public in February 1554, when she promised never to marry anyone that her subjects did not approve of, Mary and Philip can be seen here entering London later that same year.
Mary truly believed it was her duty to stamp out sacrilege and stop heretics corrupting and damning others.
Marian Persecutions
These early executions led to a wide-scale persecution of Protestants, numbering between 280 to 300 people. While Mary actually put to death a mere fraction of those her father executed, her reputation as a destructive force, hell-bent on cutting out anyone she saw as a canker, is well known. However, Mary truly believed it was her duty to stamp out sacrilege and stop heretics corrupting and damning others.
Beginning with the newly reinstated heresy laws, from 20 January 1555 it was legal to punish anyone found guilty of heresy against the Catholic Church. Now sanctioned by Parliament, Mary’s council sought to show their support for the traditional faith by purging the land of heretics. With some members more proactive than others, the more orthodox and conservative council members such as Bishop Gardiner and Edmund Bonner, the Bishop of London, made examples of prominent, well-known people. Bonner especially became widely detested for his part in the persecutions, dubbed ‘Bloody’ Bonner by his enemies. Almost all of the victims were burned at the stake, including nobles, Church leaders, men, women and even a few children. There were no political motives here, as is often the case with executions. It was purely about religious persecution.