by John, Judith
This sumptuous painting shows Elizabeth I opening her Parliament with just as much authority as any of the great Kings that preceded her. Despite plots, religious disputes and rebellions, Good Queen Bess held the love of her council and country alike.
VII
TUDORS
ELIZABETH I:
THE TUDOR LEGACY
Having rid herself of potential usurpers, crushed troublesome neighbours and led her council a merry dance of procrastination for over two decades, Elizabeth would now spread her rule across the seas. The Spanish may be coming, but Gloriana intended to send them packing. While her gaze was on the English borders, the attention of her beloved subjects was firmly on the Queen. England was about to usher in a golden age of arts, theatre and literature in which she was given a starring role.
‘I may not be a lion, but I am lion’s cub and I have a lion’s heart.’
Spain had long been taking advantage of trade routes and settlements to grow wealthy from exploring and foreign business. Having acquired lands in the Americas in the fifteenth century, Spain began the colonization of the New World. Christopher Columbus had brought the gift of Christianity, but took slaves, vast riches and many lives in return.
Francis Drake came from a farming family, but took to sea when the family moved to Kent from Devon due to the religious uprisings under Edward VI. He proved a natural sailor whose run-ins with the Spanish inspired a vengeful attitude he would later be renowned for. Drake first set sail with the authority of Elizabeth in 1572, aiming to capture a town in Panama as an English stronghold. While this was unsuccessful, he and his crew made a great fortune in plunder and Drake returned to England a wealthy man.
Elizabeth was delighted with her swashbuckling adventurer and, eager to take advantage of lucrative trade routes long utilized by Spain, the Queen financed an expedition for Drake to explore what lay beyond the New World and make a full circumnavigation of the globe in 1577. Elizabeth made it clear that any damage he could cause to the Spanish while on this mission would be looked upon favourably, an addendum Drake took great pleasure in.
Five ships left England in December, but due to bad weather they became separated, so the Golden Hind (originally the Pelican) completed the circumnavigation alone. The expedition took almost three years. Drake returned on 26 September 1580, to be met at the dock by an adoring Queen who immediately bestowed a knighthood upon him. Already deemed a success by its achievement, the expedition was thought to be a miracle of God when Drake shared the treasure won from Nuestra Senora de la Conception, a Spanish galleon the Golden Hind had captured and looted. With six tons of gold, Elizabeth earned enough to pay off her entire foreign debt. Drake would go on to defend his country in the Spanish Armada, aiding the English victory.
Elizabeth made it clear that any damage he could cause to the Spanish … would be looked upon favourably …
This impressive map by Nicola van Sype, dated 1581, depicts Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe (show with the pale dotted line), which began in 1577. Drake won the hearts of the English public, even if the Spanish were not so enamoured of his antics.
In 1585, Elizabeth again called upon her trusty pirate. Drake was to lead 25 ships into Spanish waters and cause as much damage as he could to Spanish acquisitions in the New World. This Drake performed admirably. He was able to take several cities in the West Indies, including San Domingo, the prosperous capital of the Spanish New World. Several cities were plundered, wrecked and ransomed by Drake’s pirates, causing huge damage to Spanish credit and trade, and making the name of Drake notorious.
Elizabeth I knights Francis Drake aboard the Golden Hind in 1580 on the completion of his circumnavigation. An excellent example of propaganda painting, Elizabeth is the powerful monarch whose subjects will travel the length and breadth of the world for her.
Drake struck again in 1587, when he laid siege to Cadiz in southwest Spain. This time Drake was to cause damage to the Spanish fleet, which Philip II was readying to set against England. In April 1587, Drake’s fleet – under his lead on the Elizabeth Bonaventure – roared through the Spanish, pushing back the galleons that had been sent out to intercept them and destroying or capturing several ships. Many costly provisions that the Spanish had worked for months to build up were lost within hours.
BOWLS BEFORE BATTLE
WHEN THE FIRST of the Spanish fleet were sighted at Plymouth, sending the English into a frenzied rush of preparation, it is rumoured that Drake did not spring into action to defend his beloved country. Instead, the dashing brigand calmly finished the game of bowls he was enjoying (as depicted below), before making his way to take on the might of the Armada. Drake’s knowledge of the local tides meant he had no need to rush.
Drake’s cavalier attitude belies his anti-Catholic stance and hatred of the Spanish, by whom many of his shipmates suffered in his early days of seafaring.
Leaving Cadiz and heading for Portugal, Drake’s fleet attacked and destroyed every Spanish ship they encountered, allowing nothing to get past their mighty convoy. As a consequence, the Spanish now knew Drake as El Draque (the dragon) and Philip II personally set a high price on Drake’s head. However, the pirate’s luck held as Drake was able to capture the São Filipe, a Portuguese ship returning from the West Indies. This capture saw Drake amass another fortune in gold, silks and spices. A total of 100 Spanish vessels were put out of action and the planned Spanish invasion was set back by an entire year.
The waters of this painting seethe with danger and tension, mirroring how the Spanish fleet at Cadiz must have felt on facing the raid in April 1587, which delayed the Armada by almost a year.
Curtailing the Catholics
Even with Drake making sport with the Spanish fleet on her express command, Elizabeth took precautions to assure the safety of the English. Robert Dudley was sent to the Netherlands in 1585 as a result of the Treaty of Nonsuch, the signing of which Philip II took as a declaration of war. The treaty had come about after Alessandro Farnese, the Duke of Parma and Philip’s Governor General in the Netherlands, laid siege to Antwerp in 1585, forcing Protestants out of the city and placing a large portion of the Netherlands under the control of Catholic Spain. Elizabeth reluctantly agreed to supply the Netherlands with enough troops to end the siege, as well as much needed money to support their forces, needing to put a halt to Philip II’s expanding dynasty.
The eager, if inefficient, Dudley’s role was to do just that, giving just enough support and money to the Dutch as was needed to secure any threat against England. But Dudley found it hard to walk a fine line between Elizabeth’s exacting expectations and the desires of the oppressed Dutch for Dudley’s forces to take up arms with them against the Spanish invaders. He failed and was publically reprimanded by a letter from Elizabeth, who had been furious when Dudley accepted the Governor-General title that she refused. She was not blind to her favorite’s faults and knew his ambition often caused Dudley to act rashly. Elizabeth was also hesitant to provide too much open support as England was in continued peace talks with Spain (despite Drake’s actions, which Elizabeth could always disavow). But any possibility of peace would soon come to nothing.
Dudley found it hard to walk a fine line between Elizabeth’s exacting expectations and the desires of the oppressed Dutch …
Determined to defend England against Philip II, Elizabeth earned the anger of Rome by refusing to submit to Catholicism. Here Pope Pius V issues a bull to excommunicate Elizabeth. Like her father, even the anger of God’s representative did not dissuade her.
Spanish ships churn up the sea as they face the might of the British Navy during the Armada. Philip’s so-called ‘invincible fleet’ was no match for Drake’s sea dogs, who – aided by luck and bad weather – broke up the Spanish fleet in 1588.
Elizabeth knew full well that Philip II had supported the various plots to overthrow her in favour of a Catholic alternative.
Spanish Armada
With disputes against Spain a recurrin
g feature of the Tudor reign, it was only under Elizabeth that the uneasy alliance shattered, resulting in out and out war. Elizabeth knew full well that Philip II had supported the various plots to overthrow her in favour of a Catholic alternative. Elizabeth’s support of the Protestant Dutch Revolt – half-hearted though it was – had angered Spain further amid fears of Protestantism spreading across Europe. Trade with Spain had been curtailed because of the Revolt and there had been attacks on trade routes and new settlements in the New World, which the cunning Queen was eager to exploit for England, thus further weakening Spanish global influence.
As Elizabeth had been excommunicated for heresy in 1570 by Pope Pius V, the current Pope, Sixtus V, fully supported Philip II in the invasion to force England back to Catholicism, even pledging money (although the devious Pope stipulated that the money would only be given when the fleet actually landed on English shores). One of the final straws was Drake, who raided Cadiz in 1587, destroying a fleet of Spanish ships that were being made ready for the invasion. This, alongside the Treaty of Nonsuch and revenge for Elizabeth’s continued flouting of his authority, was cause enough for Philip. It was time to take the ‘invincible fleet’ of the Armada to England.
Sixtus V fully supported Philip II in the invasion to force England back to Catholicism.
Spain Prepares for War
Led by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the Spanish planned to invade England in 1588. Medina was a great general, but very inexperienced in sea battle, having replaced the previous commander just a few months earlier. The entire fleet began to sail from Lisbon in Portugal on 28 May, consisting of 130 ships and around 18,000 soldiers, taking a full two days to leave the port. This fleet was joined by an additional 30,000 men from the Spanish Netherlands, meaning that a massive force was heading for the ports of England. The spectacle must have been overwhelming. Negotiations between Spain and England were initially entered into throughout June, but these were abandoned for good by 16 July, by which time the English fleet was assembled at Plymouth. Tensions were rising sharply; with 200 ships, the English outnumbered the invaders, yet the Spanish had more available firepower with which to attack.
The English were led by Lord Howard of Effingham, with Vice Admiral Francis Drake supporting. Drake soon assumed effective command due to his battle experience, which far outweighed Medina Sidonia’s, who followed Philip’s instructions to the letter even when nature fought against them. Nature had a large part to play in the end, causing the arrival of the Spanish fleet to be delayed in reaching Plymouth, with a few of the ships not even making this first leg of the journey. Sailing on towards the Isle of Wight, the Spanish were followed by English ships on 19 July. Although less well armed, the English used their advantage of speed and manoeuvrability to avoid close contact fighting, but lost ground when Drake turned back to loot some abandoned Spanish ships under cover of darkness on 21–22 July.
The Spanish headed for Calais, meaning to join forces with Parma’s army in the Channel. They found it much harder to send and receive communications than planned, so there the fleet waited, eager for word and backup. Taking advantage of the lack of action, Drake pushed the English advantage. He ordered eight of the English warships to be sacrificed as fireships. The mighty vessels were filled with combustibles and set alight before being cast among the Spanish fleet. Under the sight of the fireships bearing down on them the Armada scattered, thereby losing much of their protection. With that, the English fleet moved in for the kill. Getting just close enough to do damage, Drake and his sea-warriors used the remains of their gunpowder to devastating effect, damaging many Spanish ships without letting them get close enough for boarding, a trick the Spanish had long preferred. When the English began to run out of momentum they pulled back, having blasted a significant hole in the mighty Armada.
He ordered eight of the English warships to be sacrificed as fireships … filled with combustibles and set alight before being cast among the Spanish fleet.
Elizabeth I is depicted as the Warrior Queen. Painted to capture her at Tilbury, Elizabeth sits atop a white steed, flanked by Dudley and Devereux, as she rouses her troops to victory.
In another example of the carefully controlled portraits of Elizabeth, this iconic scene captures the moment that the chivalric Walter Raleigh throws down his new cloak in the path of his Queen, protecting her feet from a muddy puddle that bars her way.
THE PRIVATEERS
A PIRATE BY any other name, a privateer was able to attack foreign ships during times of war with the sanction of their government. Using privateers enabled the crown to benefit from private ships and voyages doing their work for them, without the cost of ships or officers. For the privateers, vast riches could be theirs for the taking, as any booty was split between the crew.
Drake may be the most well known of Britain’s privateers, but many braved the seas in search of adventure and fortune, enjoying their work and the spoils it could win them.
Truth be told, the speech was almost unnecessary as the Spanish were ready to head for home, hungry and battered …
Elizabeth’s Victory and the Spanish Defeat
After some respite, with much of the Spanish fleet exhausted and ready to head for home, Elizabeth made the journey to Tilbury to rally her loyal men for the final skirmish. It was here that she made her most famous speech and assured her place in the hearts of her faithful subjects. Truth be told, the speech was almost unnecessary as the Spanish were ready to head for home, hungry and battered, to be tested further by bad luck and bad weather. However, Elizabeth’s commanding, majestic words show just how compelling and magnificent she could be, her words eloquently expressing the Queen’s passion and courage. Her speech still resonates today and must have been spectacular on the eve of battle, delivered by their Queen and self-styled mother clad in full armour as she rode among her steadfast troops:
We have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit our selves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust.
I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm: to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.
I know already, for your forwardness you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you in the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the mean time, my lieutenant general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people.
‘ … for your forwardness you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you in the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you …’
Shortly after Elizabeth’s iconic speech, the ravaged Spanish fleet headed for home. They sailed around the open seas of Scotland and Ireland, not wanting to face the English in the close quarters of the Channel. However, by a strange coincidence or, as many later believed, the will of God, the remaining fleet was wrecked by gales and storms, eventually losing more men and ships to the weather than to battle. Only half the ‘invincible fleet’ that left Spain managed the journey home, with many more dying of disease once they had reached the shores of Sp
ain.
In comparison, English losses were relatively minimal (although the English also suffered rampant disease), but there was no out and out victory won by Drake’s fleet. However, the fleet had proved its superiority and mastery against a dangerous adversary, which it had defeated and sent away in tatters. National pride was overwhelming and Elizabeth assured her supreme position in both history and the hearts of her people. The belief that God was on her side saw an upsurge in Protestantism, despite such superstitions being a relic of Catholicism. With Elizabeth riding high on her glorious victory, the timing was perfect for further naval expansion and a Counter Armada to be sent against Spain. Although this Counter was largely unsuccessful, the pride of the nation was not to be dented.
With Elizabeth riding high on her glorious victory, the timing was perfect for … a Counter Armada to be sent against Spain.
While England under Elizabeth had successfully beaten back the Spanish Invasion, there was to be no peace between the enemy countries. Elizabeth was always reluctant to wage unnecessary war. Unlike her father, who sought glory on the battlefield, Elizabeth tried to avoid embroiling her country in a fruitless and expensive conflict, perhaps learning from Mary I’s mistake over Calais. However, she was prepared to secure England by any means possible, taking a ruthless and destructive line if events called for it.
Raleigh: The Noble Knight
Walter Raleigh (also spelt Ralegh) came to Elizabeth’s attention during his military service in Ireland. He soon became another favourite of the Queen’s and is famous for allegedly throwing his cloak across Elizabeth’s path so that her feet stayed dry – the epitome of courtly chivalry. Raleigh looked to the New World as the future expansion of England and travelled to Roanoke, North Carolina, in 1584 with the intention of setting up a colony in Virginia. While his efforts were unsuccessful, Elizabeth was not put off and kept her new darling close to her, making him Captain of the Guard in 1587, then Governor of Jersey in 1600. Despite Devereux’s spiteful remarks – Devereux was openly jealous of Raleigh and tried to sway the Queen against him – Elizabeth awarded Raleigh control over wine licenses and cloth export, making him rich and influential. His star was on the ascendant and Raleigh might even have supplanted the conceited Devereux from the Queen’s side had it not been for his marriage.