After the accident, and back in Washington, he worked as the aide to the chief of the Army Signal Corps. His duties allowed him to avoid flying and also provided an opportunity to marry Eleanor “Bee” Pool in September 1913. The two had courted intermittently since their first meeting in 1907, when she had visited West Point. Since then the couple had remained in recurrent contact. Though shy around women, Arnold was taken with Bee and even visited her while she was vacationing in Europe when he took his long journey back from the Philippines in 1909. The marriage also facilitated his avoidance of flying duties, as it was customary at the time for married men to be removed from flight status.27
The assignment in Washington was an important step in his professional development. Working for the chief of the Signal Corps helped him not only gain insight into the workings of the federal government, but also meet the major aviation industrialists of the age. He maintained his friendship with the Wright brothers and also came to know Glenn Curtiss and others in the aviation field. His personal relationship with major actors in the U.S. aviation industry would become a key component in the growth of American airpower. Throughout his career he pushed for more advanced aircraft designs, more powerful engines, and increased aircraft performance. Though he was no engineer, he had a workmanlike understanding of aerodynamics. He constantly advocated for faster and more capable airplanes and the development of aviation technology.28 Arnold’s posting in Washington gave him unique insights on how to increase and develop military forces while dealing with the nuances of the federal bureaucracy.
Following his tour in Washington, Arnold was again posted to the Philippines and, with his new bride, arrived in Manila in January 1914. Though he had little to do with the aviation detachment at Fort McKinley, this posting had the Arnolds living next door to young Lieutenant George Marshall. In dealing with Marshall during this period, Arnold gained a quick appreciation for the future chief of staff’s skills and abilities. Observing Marshall during exercises in the Philippines, Arnold noted, “[Marshall] holds the job as the main guy for this detachment and tells colonels where to take their regiments and what to do with them … everyone agrees that he has the ability to handle the situation so there is no hard feelings.”29 Even more prescient with regard to Marshall and his talents is that Arnold told Bee that Marshall “will be a future Chief of Staff of the Army.”30 He maintained a cordial and respectful relationship with Marshall that would become all the more important during World War II.
Upon completion of their tour in the Philippines, the Arnolds set sail for the United States. While en route, Arnold received a telegram asking him to take a posting at North Island, San Diego, and return to flight status, with the promise of a promotion to captain. Despite his earlier fears of flying following his near-fatal crash at Fort Riley, Arnold accepted the job as the post supply officer at Rockwell Field in May 1916.31 His initial responsibilities at Rockwell did not require much flying, but by November 1916 he had requalified as an aviator.
It was during this tour that Arnold had the first of a number of conflicts in his career with his immediate superiors. Arnold’s boss during this incident was Colonel William A. Glassford. When two fellow aviators went missing, Arnold supposedly conducted an unauthorized search for the two men that violated the wishes of his superior. Arnold had assumed that he had authorization to search for the missing aviators, whereas Glassford argued he had given Arnold no such permission. Though Glassford eventually gave authorization for a rescue flight, he did so only after a long delay. Glassford was later reprimanded for his indecision and delay, but Arnold would feel the repercussions of his own actions, which were perceived as contrary to the wishes of his boss. Arnold’s subsequent efficiency report reflected the tension between the two; according to Arnold, that report was “so rotten that it made me stink.”32 This was not the last time Arnold would clash with a superior, but, as it turned out, the adverse efficiency report did not retard Arnold’s career.
After a short posting in Panama, Arnold was detailed to the War Department, where he was serving when America entered World War I. Assigned to the Signal Corps Aviation Section, Arnold was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel in August 1917. Despite his requests for a posting to Europe to participate in the war, he remained in the United States to plan and organize the development of America’s wartime air fleet. Arnold eventually made it to France, but he arrived at the front literally on the day the war ended. Despite his lack of combat experience and his disappointment over spending the war stateside, Arnold gained a unique appreciation of American production capacity and issues regarding the development of large organizations. He saw firsthand the many requirements for building a large air fleet and realized that an air force required not just planes and pilots, but mechanics, hangars, training programs, maintenance and industrial capacity, all working in harmony through efficient management and organization.33 He also saw that the United States had not been prepared for the war. Arnold would not forget the lessons of World War I and the lack of American preparation.
He returned from Europe in December 1918, and in the following year he oversaw postwar demobilization efforts in the western United States, during which the Air Service shrank from a wartime high of 190,000 personnel to only 27,000 by June 1919.34 In January 1920 Arnold reverted to his permanent rank of captain, but by July of the same year he was promoted to major. During this time Arnold had two exceptional officers under his command who would prove key leaders in the rise of the U.S. airpower, Major Carl Spaatz and Lieutenant Ira Eaker. Spaatz would serve as the head of Strategic Air Forces in both Europe and the Pacific during World War II, and Eaker became the commanding general of the U.S. Eighth Air Force at the beginning of the strategic bombing offensive in Europe. Arnold’s relationship with Eaker was unique. Though Eaker was Arnold’s junior, he was schooled as a journalist and was a skilled writer. The two men collaborated on writing three books addressing airpower’s utility and advocating aviation development to the general public.
In 1919 Arnold experienced yet another crash. While he was flying a French LePere biplane, the aircraft suffered a structural failure, but it remained flyable. Arnold carefully flew the plane home and gingerly landed. As he was taxiing, however, the plane’s fuselage broke in two, and he was thrown forward, the safety belt digging into his abdomen, which he claimed caused internal injuries. Because of this mishap, he frequently suffered from indigestion.35 After experiencing gastric ulcers, he was temporarily grounded from July to October 1922. Moreover, physical maladies continued to affect the Arnold household. In July 1923 his son Bill contracted a near-fatal case of scarlet fever, and his two-year-old son, John, fell ill and died after suffering a ruptured appendix. The stress of these events, combined with the lingering effects of her other medical disorders, took their toll on Bee, forcing her to return home to Ardmore for rest and recuperation.36
After various postings on the West Coast, Arnold was ordered to attend the Army Industrial College starting in August 1924. This assignment was fortunate, as the school was located in Washington, D.C., and put him closer to Bee and the family residing in Ardmore. Combined with his experiences from World War I, Arnold found the school useful and stated that it “was to stand me in good stead in later years.”37 Following graduation in January 1925, Arnold was assigned as chief of information for the chief of the Air Service, Major General Mason Patrick. This was propitious timing for Arnold, as it put him in the center of the interwar arguments regarding the roles and missions of the various military services, and especially the debate over battleships versus aircraft.38
This assignment not only had Arnold working in Washington again, but also introduced him to the importance of information, the press, and publicity. Arnold became acutely aware that the advancement of aviation required press coverage, which in turn could foster public support and, most important, funding. This funding, he knew, was the seed corn for advances in aviation technology. Additionally, public support was required if
there was ever to be a separate, independent air force. For these reasons, he constantly pushed to publicize the accomplishments and capabilities of the Air Corps.
In 1921 Brigadier General Billy Mitchell had sunk the German battleship Ostfriesland and demonstrated the vulnerability of ships to air attack. His unrestrained advocacy of airpower, however, forced Army leaders to “exile” him to a somewhat remote posting at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. Still voicing his opinions, in 1925 Mitchell was openly critical of American military leadership with regard to the slow growth of aviation, and in the autumn the general was the subject of a well-publicized court-martial. Before the legal proceedings began, Arnold had been a close friend and associate of Mitchell, and the two agreed on many ideas regarding airpower. This affiliation went so far that Arnold testified at the proceedings in Mitchell’s behalf.39 Arnold hoped Mitchell would temper his words and fall in line with military precedent. But to the dismay of Arnold and others, Mitchell remained steadfast in his zeal and was found guilty of insubordination on December 17, 1925. This verdict would have repercussions on Arnold.
During his time in the Information Office, Arnold provided information to both Congress and the press in an effort to garner support for military aviation.40 Though this campaign seemed to make good sense to help the cause for airpower, General Patrick took issue with Arnold’s actions and those of other officers. Patrick believed that Arnold and others acted “entirely without his [Patrick’s] knowledge, and through mistaken zeal,” and argued that these officers attempted to influence congressional actions inappropriately.41 This became an issue for Patrick only after Mitchell’s well-publicized court-martial, however. Before Mitchell’s trial, Patrick warned Arnold about his close association with Mitchell and the potential effect it might have on his career. In an attempt to distance himself from his pro-Mitchell subordinate following the guilty verdict, Patrick gave Arnold a choice of either resigning from the Army or facing his own court-martial for passing information to Congress and the media without express permission.42 Patrick gave Arnold only twenty-four hours to make his decision.
Much as he had in San Diego, Arnold again found himself at odds with his superior. Given a Hobson’s choice, Arnold decided to call the general’s bluff and request a court-martial. Possibly not willing to endure another public legal proceeding surrounding the Air Service and not wanting to risk potential personal and professional embarrassment, Patrick decided not to court-martial Arnold. Patrick “exiled” his subordinate to a distant post, as Mitchell had been, rather than force him from the service.43 By February 1926 the Arnold family was at Fort Riley, Kansas, which by chance was commanded by Brigadier General Ewing E. Booth, a judge in the Mitchell court-martial.44
Although Arnold did not know what kind of reception he would receive at Fort Riley, and despite the manner in which he had left Washington, the tour at the Cavalry post proved to be one of the most enjoyable in his career. Arnold assumed command of the 16th Observation Squadron and was warmly welcomed by Booth and the other officers at the post. The squadron initially had only a few tired DH-4s and JN-4 Jenny aircraft, but Arnold made the most of his assets and provided reconnaissance services to units throughout the Midwest.45 Despite his exiled status, he still served as an advocate for aviation by instructing promising officers who were attending the Cavalry School at Fort Riley on the use of the airplane in support of ground maneuvers. He incorporated aviation into the school curriculum and influenced students who might one day become general officers.46
During this tour Arnold was given the task of providing airmail service to President Calvin Coolidge while the chief executive vacationed in the Black Hills of South Dakota, a job that brought out his creative management skills. Arnold was instructed to provide mail delivery to the president every Tuesday and Thursday morning.47 Knowing the unpredictable nature of midwestern weather patterns and flying conditions, Arnold adroitly had half of the daily mail held back by the ground crews so that there would always be something to deliver to the president on Tuesdays and Thursdays.48 The mail may have been late, but there was at least an uninterrupted flow.49 Accomplishing the mission, Arnold earned a letter of commendation from the secretary of War.
By the time he arrived at Fort Riley, Arnold was reaching his twentieth year of military service, thereby making him eligible for retirement. During this tour, Pan American Airways offered Arnold an employment opportunity. As aviation became more popular, the idea of air travel began to grow and airlines began to appear. One of the largest carriers was Pan American, and its president, Juan Trippe, personally called the Arnold residence seeking his services. Arnold would have done well financially if he had decided to retire and accept the job. Despite the promising offer, and concerned about the future of American military aviation, he declined, stating, “I couldn’t very well quit the service under fire.”50
Arnold did so well in his exile tour that General Booth recommended him for a seat at the Army’s prestigious Command and General Staff College (CGSC) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In his recommendation Booth wrote, “I consider that the progress in training between the Air Corps and the other combat units of this post has been of exceptional value and is improving all the time. His [Arnold’s] method of instruction and training of observers, 90 of whom are taking the course here, is exceptionally good…. I shall be very sorry to see Major Arnold leave this post but feel that his excellent services here entitle him to as favorable recommendation as I can give him.”51
Unfortunately, the commandant of the school at Leavenworth, Brigadier General Edward L. King, who was also a member of the Mitchell court-martial panel, thought that Arnold’s presence might be a distraction to the other students attending the ground-centric school, and discouraged Arnold’s attendance. Despite King’s reservations, Arnold attended the course but found the overall curriculum prosaic and thought that the aviation curriculum was both lacking and outdated; Army doctrine at the time did not give aviation a significant support role in ground operations. One evening after class he told Bee, “Well we fought the battle of Gettysburg again today, and guess who won. Right, Meade did it again, but think what Lee could have done with just one Wright airplane.”52 The experience Arnold had gained at Fort Riley, however, allowed him to surprise his Cavalry classmates by his understanding of their tactics and his ability to withstand long rides in the saddle.53
While Arnold attended the course, a fellow airman crashed an aircraft into the Missouri River. General King called the aviators in the class into his office and began to admonish them about their flying skills and ability.54 Being lectured about flying by a man who was not an aviator himself did not sit well with Arnold. After the lecture, and while within earshot of the general, Arnold said, “That guy doesn’t know a damned thing about flying.”55 According to one account, the general grabbed Arnold by the belt and told him to take the comment back, to which Arnold replied, “No, Sir, you don’t know anything about flying and you can’t tell these men how to fly.”56
Major Arnold, 1927. (Courtesy of the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force)
Despite this incident with the general, Arnold performed well at the college. Perhaps to further prod the general, Arnold wrote a paper addressing how topics such as air operations should be included in the curriculum of the college.57 Ironically, years afterward, in 1931, Arnold met General King again, and the senior officer informed the junior that he “appreciated very much the paper [he] had submitted … outlining … ideas of the proper instruction in air operations at the Command and General Staff School.”58 Arnold’s experience at CGSC had been a disappointment, and when it came time for graduation, he could not leave the post fast enough. On graduation day in 1929, Arnold attended the formal ceremonies alone. Bee and the kids waited in the car outside the building, with the engine running, so that after the graduation ceremony “he could get out of the goddamned place just as fast as possible.”59 Nevertheless, he had made the acquaintance of a number of fellow students with whom he wo
uld work again in later assignments.
After graduation the Arnolds headed for the Fairfield Air Depot at Dayton, Ohio, where he assumed responsibility for managing the distribution of aviation-related supplies and scheduled maintenance of aircraft. During this assignment, he, like the rest of America, felt the effect of the stock market crash and the beginning of the Great Depression. He lost much of his own personal savings, but by remaining in the service and not having jumped at Pan American Airways’ offer, he at least remained employed. The same could not be said for both his parents and his in-laws, however, who lost much of their holdings and were financially ruined. It was also during this period that Arnold’s mother passed away, in January 1931.60 Though his mother, as well as Bee, had always referred to him as “Sunny,” after his mother’s death he began to sign his correspondence with the nickname “Hap.”61 Many speculate that the nickname was short for “Happy,” but the origin of this nickname remains a mystery.62 So does the reason for his choosing to assume the new nickname after his mother’s death. Regardless of its origins or the rationale for its use, Hap became the nickname most closely associated with him.
In 1931 Arnold, promoted to lieutenant colonel, was once again sent to the West Coast and this time assumed command of an operational flight detachment at March Field, near Riverside, California. In this assignment Arnold made the most of his proximity to Hollywood and used his command to publicize airpower as much as possible. Holding air shows and courting celebrities at March Field put the Air Corps in public view while garnering much favorable press.63 As he had learned in his time in Washington, publicity was a key component in the development of American aviation. In addition to the public relations efforts, this command also reunited Arnold with both Spaatz and Eaker and offered him the opportunity to work with other talented officers destined for the flag-grade ranks.
Generals of the Army Page 18