by Odd Westad
6. Valery Garrett, Chinese Dress: From the Qing Dynasty to the Present (North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Publishing, 2008), 126–155 on the republican era.
7. The name itself has a fascinating foreign background: While in Japan, Sun began using the Japanese surname Nakayama, central mountain, which in Chinese is pronounced Zhongshan. He kept it, in its Chinese form, as a nom de guerre after he returned to China.
8. When Cheng tried to reestablish his paper in Taiwan after 1949, the Guomindang government immediately closed it down.
9. Lu Hanchao, Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
10. Qi Jianhong and Zhou Jieqiong, French Direct Investment in China: A Survey Report, East Asia Economic Research Group Discussion Paper (Brisbane: School of Economics, The University of Queensland, January 2006).
11. Osterhammel, China und die Weltgesellschaft: Vom 18. Jahrhundert bis in unsere Zeit, 255.
12. Norman P. Grubb, C. T. Studd: Cricketer and Pioneer (London: Religious Tract Society, 1933). Studd had played for England in the first test match against Australia (the origins of the Ashes series) and believed sports would help convert souls for Jesus.
13. Because of Mao’s scathing valedictory to the US presence in China (entitled “Farewell, John Leighton Stuart” in Mao’s Selected Works), Stuart became the most reviled foreigner in China after 1949. Before he died in 1962, he told his family that he wished to be buried at the university he had constructed, when such an act became politically possible. But, in a final slight, when the PRC government finally agreed to his ashes being interred in China in 2008, they insisted that it happen in Hangzhou, his birthplace, rather than at the campus he had created.
14. Watchman Nee was imprisoned soon after the Communist takeover; he died in prison in 1972. Membership in his Little Flock and other groups that have grown out of it now numbers more than 100,000 in China and is rapidly growing. Lian Xi, Redeemed by Fire: The Rise of Popular Christianity in Modern China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010).
15. Madeleine Chi, China Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 1970), 53–54.
16. But as important were: Julia C. Strauss, Strong Institutions in Weak Polities: State Building in Republican China, 1927–1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 75. The Frenchman Jean Monnet: Hungdah Su, “The Father of Europe in China: Jean Monnet and Creation of the C.D.F.C. (1933–1936),” Journal of European Integration History 13, no. 1 (2007): 9–24.
17. For understandable reasons Stennes: Stennes’s chances of survival in Nazi Germany would have been low; he had testified against Hitler in a 1931 court case and Hitler had later sued Stennes for copyright infringement. In 2000 it was claimed that Stennes had been a Soviet agent through much of the 1940s; Trud, 14 March 2000, no. 46. Chiang’s older son, Chiang Ching-kuo: Bernd Martin and Susanne Kuss, eds., Deutsch-Chinesische Beziehungen 1928–1937: “gleiche” Partner Unter “ungleichen” Bedingungen: Eine Quellensammlung (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2003).
18. Walter J. Boyne, Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 126–127.
19. Vasilii Chuikov, Missiia v Kitae: zapiski voennogo sovetnika (Moscow: Vostochnoilit-ry, 1981).
20. Almost all of the chief Comintern advisers came to a sorry end: Sneevliet was shot by the Germans in 1942, Borodin and Stern died in Stalin’s purges.
21. “Will Moscow,” she wrote: Anna Louise Strong, China’s Millions: The Revolutionary Struggles from 1927 to 1935 (New York: Knight, 1935), 412–413. Strong married a Russian: The New Soviet Constitution, a Study in Socialist Democracy (New York: H. Holt, 1937). Strong also wrote a book about Poland’s liberation by the Soviets in 1945, I Saw the New Poland (Boston: Little Brown, 1946); about the Chinese liberation of Tibet in 1959, When Serfs Stood Up in Tibet (Beijing: New World Press, 1960), and, as if this were not enough, an explanation of why Mao’s Great Leap Forward would save China, The Rise of the People’s Communes in China (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1960).
22. Hyun Ok Park, Two Dreams in One Bed: Empire, Social Life, and the Origins of the North Korean Revolution in Manchuria (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
23. Books on law: See Zou Zhenhuan, Yingxiang Zhongguo jindai shehui de yibai zhong yizuo [The One Hundred Translations That Have Had the Strongest Influence on Modern Chinese Society] (Beijing: Zhongguo duiwai fanyi, 1996). By the 1910s China: Ishikawa Yoshihiro, “Chinese Marxism in the Early 20th Century and Japan,” Sino-Japanese Studies 14 (n.d.): 24–34.
24. Zhang Ping, “Sherlock Holmes in China,” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 13, no. 2 (2005): 106; Xiaoqing Cheng and Timothy C. Wong, Sherlock in Shanghai: Stories of Crime and Detection (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007).
25. Joys Cheung, “Chinese Music and Translated Modernity in Shanghai, 1918–1937” (PhD dissertation, University of Michigan, 2008); Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
26. He Libo, “1929 de Xihu bolanhui,” Jiangcha fengyun, 6, 2010: 6–70; Ai Xianfeng, “1929 de Xihu bolanhui shulun [An Overview and Discussion of the 1929 West Lake Exposition],” Huazhong shifan daxue xuebao, renwen shehuikexue ban, 4, 2009: 84–89.
27. Xin qingnian 6, 1 (January 1919): 10–11.
28. Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
29. Monlin Chiang, Tides from the West, a Chinese Autobiography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947).
30. Hu Shi, “Baihua wenyan zhi youlie bijiao [A Comparison of the Good and Bad in the Vernacular Language], Hu Shi liuxue riji [Hu Shih’s Diary from Studying Abroad], Minguo congshu, 2nd series, vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian, 1990), p. 943; quoted from Elisabeth Kaske, The Politics of Language in Chinese Education, 1895–1919 (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 424 (amended translation).
31. “The Question of Miss Zhao’s Personality” (1919), Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings 1912–1949, ed. Stuart R. Schram, 7 vols. (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), vol. 1, p. 422.
32. Robert Bickers, “Shanghailanders: The Formation and Identity of the British Settler Community in Shanghai, 1843–1937,” Past & Present 159, no. 1 (May 1, 1998): 161–211, 188.
33. Kate Bagnall, “Golden Shadows on a White Land: An Exploration of the Lives of White Women Who Partnered Chinese Men and Their Children in Southern Australia, 1855–1915” (PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, 2006), 245–297.
34. Esther Cheo Ying, Black Country to Red China (London: Cresset Women’s Voices, 1987), 12.
CHAPTER 6: ABROAD
1. Lee Kuan Yew, “A Tale of Two Cities: Twenty Years On,” Li Ka Shing Lecture, University of Hong Kong, 14 December 1992, in (Singapore) Ministerial Speeches, 16, no. 6 (November-December 1992), p. 55.
2. The Labor Agitators, or, The Battle for Bread: The Party of the Future, the Workingmen’s Party of California: Its Birth and Organization: Its Leaders and Its Purposes: Corruption in Our Local and State Governments: Venality of the Press (San Francisco: Geo. W. Greene, 1879).
3. Bayard Taylor quoted in Committee of the Senate of California, ed., Chinese Immigration: The Social, Moral and Political Effect of Chinese Immigration (Sacramento, CA: State Printing Office, 1877). Taylor’s book, which the quote is from, was published in 1855.
4. Chinese American Demographics, at http://www.ameredia.com/resources/demographics/chinese.html.
5. Vincent Peloso, “Racial Conflict and Identity Crisis in Wartime Peru: Revisiting the Cañete Massacre of 1881,” Social Identities 11, no. 5 (September 2005): 467–488.
6. Lisa Yun, The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves in Cuba (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008).
7. Gregor Benton, Chinese Migrants and Internationalism: Forgotten Histories, 1917–1945 (London: Routledge, 2007).
/> 8. Ibid., p. 91.
9. Wieland Wagner, “Chinese Tourists Do Europe,” Der Spiegel, 17 August 2007.
10. Quoted from Adam McKeown, Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, Hawaii, 1900–1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 127.
11. Benton, Chinese Migrants and Internationalism, 67.
12. Quoted from the PBS documentary Becoming American: The Chinese Experience. Program Three: No Turning Back. First broadcast in the United States in 2003.
13. The Times, 27 December 1917.
14. Xu, China and the Great War, 134.
15. Aleksandr Larin, “Krasnye i belye: krasnoarmyeitsy iz podnebesnoi” [Red and White: Red Army Soldiers from the Celestial Empire],” Rodina, 2000; Lewis H. Siegelbaum, “Another ‘Yellow Peril’?: Chinese Migrants in the Russian Far East and the Russian Reaction Before 1917,” Modern Asian Studies 12, no. 2 (1978): 307–330. See also Benton, Chinese Migrants and Internationalism, 20–29.
16. Linqing Yao, The Chinese Overseas Students: An Overview of the Flows Change, paper at the Australian Population Association’s 12th biennial conference, September 2004, at http://www.apa.org.au/upload/2004-6C_Yao.pdf.
17. Weili Ye, Seeking Modernity in China’s Name: Chinese Students in the United States, 1900–1927 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), 19.
18. The CCP told them: Elizabeth McGuire, “Between Revolutions: Chinese Students in Soviet Institutes, 1948–1966,” in China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present, ed. Thomas Bernstein and Hua-yu Li (Lanham, MA: Lexington Books, 2010), 366. As late as in 2002: He Li, “Returned Students and Political Change in China,” Asian Perspective [S. Korea] 30, no. 2 (2006): 5–30.
19. Renmin ribao, 27 January 2010.
20. Allen F. Damon, “Financing Revolution: Sun Yat-sen and the Overthrow of the Ch’ing Dynasty,” The Hawaiian Journal of History 25 (1991): 166–167.
21. Li Lisan’s Russian widow, Elizaveta Kishkina, still lives in Beijing at the age of ninety-six under the name Li Sha; she spent eight years in prison during the Cultural Revolution. Her autobiography, Wo de Zhongguo yuan fen: Li Lisan furen Li Sha huiyilu [My Fateful Encounter with China: The Memoirs of Li Lisan’s Wife Li Sha] (Beijing: Waiyu jiaoxue yu yanjiu, 2009) is worth reading as a warning for foreigners who get too involved in Chinese affairs.
22. “The Man Who Saw It All,” Time, 5 December 2005.
23. Nien Cheng, Life and Death in Shanghai (New York: Penguin, 1995), 105.
24. Hua published his somewhat unreliable memoirs in 1981; Leon Hoa, Reconstruire la Chine: trente ans d’urbanisme, 1949–1979 [Reconstructing China: Thirty Years of Urbanism] (Paris: Moniteur, 1981).
25. Cheng Li, “Foreign-Educated Returnees in the People’s Republic of China: Increasing Political Influence with Limited Official Power,” Journal of International Migration and Integration 7, no. 4 (September 1, 2006): 493–516.
CHAPTER 7: WAR
1. The Land of the Manchu, also spelled Manzhouguo.
2. Although it is notoriously difficult to estimate overall numbers of war casualties, Rudolph J. Rummel, China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (New York: Transaction Publishers, 1991) is a very trustworthy source. See also Guo Rugui, Zhongguo kangri zhanzheng zhengmian zhanchang zuozhan ji (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin, 2006) and Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan’s World War Two, 1931–1945 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007).
3. Prasenjit Duara, The Global and Regional in China’s Nation-Formation (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 51.
4. On 30 July he declared: James Crowley, Japan’s Quest for Autonomy: National Security and Foreign Policy, 1930–1958 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), 339. Addressing his countrymen by radio: Statement on a war of self-defense and resistance by the National Government, 14 August 1937, at http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2005-06-19/1841298670.html.
5. In a speech on 5 October 1937: http://www.vlib.us/amdocs/texts/fdrquarn.html. During the first year of the war: John W. Garver, Chinese–Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 38. The Soviets lost 9,000 men: Alvin D. Coox, Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 915.
6. Aaron William Moore, “The Chimera of Privacy: Reading Self-Discipline in Japanese Diaries from the Second World War (1937–1945),” The Journal of Asian Studies 68, no. 1 (2009): 187.
7. John Rabe, The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, ed. Erwin Wickert (New York: Knopf, 1998), 77.
8. Dreimächtepakt zwischen Deutschland, Italien und Japan vom 27- September 1940, in Reichsgesetzblatt, 2, 1940, p. 280.
9. Chiang, 13 April 1941, quoted in Jay Taylor, The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 181–182.
10. Ibid., 188.
11. Ibid., 190.
12. Bevin Alexander, The Strange Connection: US Intervention in China, 1944–1972 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1992), 16.
13. Roosevelt-Chiang dinner meeting, 23 November 1943, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1943, Conferences at Cairo and Teheran, 324.
14. Dong Wang, “The Discourse of Unequal Treaties in Modern China,” Pacific Affairs 76, no. 3 (October 1, 2003): 399.
15. Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby, Thunder out of China (New York: William Sloane, 1946), 162.
16. Micah S. Muscolino, “Refugees, Land Reclamation, and Militarized Landscapes in Wartime China: Huanglongshan, Shaanxi, 1937–45,” The Journal of Asian Studies 69, no. 2 (2010): 453–478.
17. One particularly good book on how war made modern China is Hans van de Ven, War and Nationalism in China: 1925–1945 (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003).
18. Entry for 22 December 1943, The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov, intr. and ed. Ivo Banac (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 290.
19. In the name of national resistance: Ralph Thaxton, Salt of the Earth: The Political Origins of Peasant Protest and Communist Revolution in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 256. In the western Shandong borderlands: Yung-fa Chen, Making Revolution: The Communist Movement in Eastern and Central China, 1937–1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 267–269.
20. Parks M. Coble, “Japan’s New Order and the Shanghai Capitalists: Conflict and Collaboration, 1937–1945,” in Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation, ed. David P. Barrett and Lawrence N. Shyu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 135–155.
21. Peter J. Seybolt, “The War Within a War: A Case Study of a County on the North China Plain,” in Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation, ed. David P. Barrett and Lawrence N. Shyu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001).
22. They could also, where needed: Yung-fa Chen, Making Revolution, 116–117. Hurley also promised US supplies: Michael Sheng, Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 89–93. See also Odd Arne Westad, Cold War and Revolution: Soviet-American Rivalry and the Origins of the Chinese Civil War, 1944–1946 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).
23. Chiang Kai-shek’s victory message, 15 August 1945, at IBiblio, http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1945/450815c.html.
CHAPTER 8: COMMUNISM
1. Sin-wai Chan and David E. Pollard, eds., An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English, English-Chinese (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2001).
2. For this, see David Apter and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao’s Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).
3. Quoted from Westad, Decisive Encounters, 160.
4. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 5.
5. Lin Biao, the civil war hero: “Ai Yingxu, Lin Biao ruhe duidai kangMei yuanChao: Bu tongyi chubing Chaoxian?” [What Attitude Did Lin Biao Have to the Campaign to Resist America and Assist Korea: Did He Not Agree with the Sending of Troops to Korea?], 9 Se
ptember 2010, at http://dangshi.people.com.cn, accessed 5 October 2010. “To enter the war”: Mao Zedong to Zhou Enlai, 13 October 1950, Mao Zedong, Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao [Mao Zedong’s Manuscripts Since the Founding of the People’s Republic], ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1996), vol. 1, 556.
6. James Z. Gao, “War Culture, Nationalism, and Political Campaigns, 1950–1953,” in Chinese Nationalism in Perspective: Historical and Recent Cases, ed. C. X. George Wei and Xiaoyuan Liu (New York: Praeger, 2001); Adam Cathcart, “Japanese Devils and American Wolves: Chinese Communist Songs from the War of Liberation and the Korean War,” Popular Music and Society 33, no. 2 (2010): 203.
7. Lorenz Lüthi, The Sino-Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
8. For different estimates, see Shu Guang Zhang, Economic Cold War: America’s Embargo Against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002) and Shen Zhihua, Sulian zhuanjia zai Zhongguo, 1948–1960 [Soviet Experts in China, 1948–1960] (Beijing: Zhongguo guoji guangbo, 2003). My figures are based on conversations with Chinese economists working on the effects of the aid program.
9. For Shanghai, see Li Dehong, ed., Shanghai shi zhongxue jiaoshi yundong shiliao xuan [Selected Materials on the Secondary School Teachers’ Movement in Shanghai] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu, 1997).
10. See Cui Xiaolin’s fascinating Chongsu yu sikao: 1951 nian qianhou gao xiao zhishifenzi sixiang gaizao yundong yanjiu [Remoulding and Rethinking: A Study of the Movement to Transform the Thinking of Intellectuals in Colleges and Universities Around 1951] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi, 2005). For Renmin Daxue, see Douglas A. Stiffler, “Building Socialism at Chinese People’s University: Chinese Cadres and Soviet Experts in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1957” (PhD dissertation, University of California–San Diego, 2002).
11. The wholesale importing of curricula: Having observed first hand the same mixture at the (re)introduction of American curricula and teaching methods in China in the 1980s, I can only sympathize with the students on whom all of this was tested out. There was a fair share: Eddy U, “The Making of zhishifenzi: The Critical Impact of the Registration of Unemployed Intellectuals in the Early PRC,” The China Quarterly 173 (2003): 100–121; and idem, “The Hiring of Rejects: Teacher Recruitment and Crises of Socialism in the Early PRC Years,” Modern China 30, 1, (2004): 46–80.