by Odd Westad
18. Robert Suettinger, Beyond Tian’anmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations, 1989– 2000 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 87.
19. Song Qiang et al., Zhongguo keyi shuo bu: Lengzhanhou shidai de zhengzhi yu qinggan jueze [The China That Can Say No: Political and Emotional Choices in the Post Cold War Era] (Beijing: Zhonghua gongshang lianhe, 1996).
20. “China must [now] pay”: S. Mahmud Ali, U.S.-China Relations in the “Asia-Pacific” Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 15. At a remarkable press conference: http://www.zpub.com/un/china27.html.
21. The purpose of the bombing: UN Press Release 6659, 26 March 1999. The Hong Kong magazine Qianshao has reported that Jiang Zemin’s unpublished memoirs acknowledge the stationing of Yugoslav intelligence personnel inside the Chinese embassy compound before the attack and close cooperation with Milosevic in the lead-up to the war (Qianshao, no. 240 [February 2011]). President Jiang Zemin stoked: Ali, U.S.-China Relations in the “Asia-Pacific” Century, 94. The main official newspaper: Renmin ribao, 12 and 13 May 1999.
22. Simon Shen, Redefining Nationalism in Modern China: Sino-American Relations and the Emergence of Chinese Public Opinion in the 21st Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 63. Shen’s book is an excellent introduction to debates about nationalism in contemporary China.
23. When the new US administration: Ibid., 73. The Yugoslavs had provided them: The PLA also learned to scale down its pursuit of US spy planes to avoid confrontation; see The Guardian, 30 July 2001.
24. Press Release of the Chinese UN Mission, 13 September 2001, “Chinese President Jiang Zemin Expressed Condolences by Telegraph over Terrorist Attacks on America and Talked with President Bush on Telephone to Show China’s Position against Terrorism,” at http://www.china-un.org/eng/chinaandun/securitycouncil/thematicissues/counterterrorism/t26903.htm.
25. US Secretary of State Colin Powell, “Remarks at the Elliott School of International Affairs,” September 5, 2003, http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2003/23836.htm.
26. Inter-Agency Group on Economic and Financial Statistics, Principal Global Indicators, at http://www.principalglobalindicators.org/default.aspx; International Monetary Fund, Country Information, at http://www.imf.org/external/country/index.htm; US Department of the Treasury, Major Foreign Holders of Treasury Securities, at http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/data-chart-center/tic/Documents/mfh.txt; and European Commission, Trade: Bilateral Relations, at http://ec.europa.eu/trade/creating-opportunities/bilateral-relations/. See also JC de Swaan, “China Goes to Wall Street: Beijing’s Evolving US Investment Strategy,” Foreign Affairs, April 29, 2010.
27. For useful comparisons, see the website of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, at http://armscontrolcenter.org/. For all countries, I have included that part of payments to veterans that is exclusively used for military veterans’ purposes.
CHAPTER 11: CHINA’S ASIA
1. Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD, 2001), 216–217.
2. Asia Times, 14 January 2009. When the original agreement was signed in 1999, both sides agreed to give a symbolic one square kilometer of disputed territory more to China than to Vietnam—signaling the images of the traditional relationship (Alexander Vuving, “Grand Strategic Fit and Power Shift: Explaining Turning Points in China-Vietnam Relations,” in Living with China, ed. Shiping Tang et al. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 229–245.
3. “Dong-A Ilbo Opinion Poll on South Korean Attitudes Toward Japan and Other Nations,” 26 April 2005, http://www.mansfieldfdn.org/polls/2005/poll-05-2.htm.
4. See for instance US Assistant Secretary of State Kurt Campbell’s conversation with South Korean experts, 18 February 2010, WikiLeaks, at http://213.251.145.96/cable/2010/02/10SEOUL248.html.
5. “Xiandaihua yu lishi jiaokeshu” [Modernization and History Textbooks], Bingdian, 11 January 2006. The journal was closed down for its efforts.
6. “On Memories of Violence, Part 2: Chinese Textbooks and Questions About the Korean War 60 years Later,” at Jeremiah Jenne’s blog http://granitestudio.org/2010/06/25/.
7. New History Textbook (Chapters 4 & 5), 2005 version. Prepared and translated by Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform from Atarashii rekishi kyōkasho wo tsukuru kai (The Japanese Society for Textbook Reform), published by Fusosha, Tokyo, at http://www.tsukurukai.com/05_rekisi_text/rekishi_English/English.pdf. Most Japanese textbooks are more critical toward Japan’s wartime guilt.
8. The Diaoyu/Senkaku islands: On the background for the dispute, see Unryu Suganuma, “The Diaoyo/Senkaku Islands: A Hotbed for a Hot War?” in China and Japan at Odds: Deciphering the Perpetual Conflict, ed. James Hsiung (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 155–172. So far the courts: Ming Wan, Sino-Japanese Relations: Interaction, Logic, and Transformation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008), 304–326.
9. Singapore’s anti-Communist leader: Record of conversation, Lee and FRG Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, 11 June 1979, in Ilse Dorothee Pautsch et al., Akten zur auswärtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1979: 1. Juli bis 31. Dezember 1979 (Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2010), 173–174. China’s attempts at: Nobody has yet written the history of China’s involvement with these insurgencies.
10. Now other ASEAN states are: The reader can find excellent maps at http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/spratly-maps.htm. People of Chinese ancestry are still: “Indonesia: Chinese, Migrants,” Migration News, 5, 6 (June 1998), http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1559_0_3_0.
11. One report described: Contemporary report, quoted in Jemma Purdey, Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006), 1. Student protests in Beijing: Nationalist sentiment in China migrated to the internet in the 1990s; the first hacking attack by China’s emerging cyber-militia on foreign networks was against Indonesia in 1998, in response to the racist violence there; see Christopher R. Hughes, “Nationalism in Chinese Cyberspace,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 13, no. 2 (2000): 195.
12. Mikhail Gorbachev, Zhizn i reformy [Life and Reforms] (Moscow: Novosti, 1995).
13. “Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation Between the People’s Republic of China and the Russian Federation,” 24 July 2001, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/2649/t15771.htm.
14. SCO’s charter binds: “Charter of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization,” at the organization’s website http://www.sectsco.org/EN/show.asp?id=69. After a century, Beijing: A quick visit to the website of STO (http://www.sectsco.org) shows its name in Chinese throning over smaller versions in Russian and English (with no Kazakh, Tajik, or Uzbek). In practical terms, the organization’s influence has so far been limited; its only common institution is the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (with the somewhat unfortunate acronym RATS), headquartered in Tashkent.
15. Memorandum of Conversation, Beijing, 27 November 1974, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XVIII, China, 1973–1976, document 97.
16. Jonathan Holslag, China and India: Prospects for Peace (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 51.
17. China abstained on condemning Yugoslavia over Kosovo in 1998, on sanctions against Burma and Zimbabwe, on a UN mission to Darfur in 2006, and on a no-fly zone in Libya in 2011.
MODERNITIES
1. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, US Department of State, “Background Note: Hong Kong, 15 March 2011,” http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2747.htm.
2. In spite of its government’s: This was of course once the case with the UK and US, too. Seen from a Western: Edward Steinfeld, Playing Our Game: Why China’s Economic Rise Doesn’t Threaten the West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
3. “Full text of Chinese Premier’s Speech at World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2009,” 29 January 2009, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-01/29/content_10731877_1.htm.
4. “President Jiang Zemin Comments on Falun Gong’s Harms 25 October 1999,�
�� http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36565.htm.
5. “Dalai Lama ‘Wolf in Monk’s Robes’: Official,” China Daily, 7 March 2011. The comments are by Zhang Qingli, the long-suffering Chinese party boss in Tibet, who is a constant voice within the CCP against “splitters and deviationists.”
6. Jan Vilcek and Bruce N. Cronstein, “A Prize for the Foreign-born,” The FASEB Journal 20, no. 9 (July 1, 2006): 1281–1283.
7. Adapted from a chant by Millwall Football Club (though I in no way hold the Bermondsey Lions responsible for Chinese nationalism).
8. For a good discussion, see Martin Jacques, When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the End of the Western World (London: Allen Lane, 2009), 244–252.
9. Fergus Hanson and Andrew Shearer, China and the World: Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (Sydney: The Lowy Institute, 2009).
10. Wang Jisi, “China’s Search for a Grand Strategy,” Foreign Affairs (April 2011).
11. For an excellent overview, see the Columbia University site China and Europe 1500– 2000: What Is “Modern”? http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s6/s6_3.html.
12. See United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, “World Population to 2030” (UN, 2004); Amartya Sen, “Quality of Life,” New York Review of Books (May 12, 2011).
13. “Pakistan and China: Sweet As Can Be?,” The Economist, May 12, 2011.
14. “General Attitudes Toward China,” WorldPublicOpinion.org, http://www.americansworld.org/digest/regional_issues/china/china1.cfm.
INDEX
Accounting practices, 188–189
Afghanistan, China and US troops in, 436–437
Africa, PRC and, 352
Agriculture, 8, 24, 113, 125, 251, 269–270, 327, 330, 372
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 219
Albania, 358
Algeria, 350, 352
Amiot, Jean, 11
Anhui province, 273
Aquino, Benigno, Jr., 219
Architecture, Chinese modern, 177–178
Artists, foreign influences on, 202–203
The Art of War (Sun Zi), 6
Arunachal Pradesh, 434
Asaka Yasuhiko, 261
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), 406, 409, 420–422, 460–461
ASEAN-China Free Trade Area, 421
Ashley, Percy, 137
Asia
Chinese re-engagement with, 405–407
trade and, 55, 459
See also Southeast Asia; individual countries
Associations, 64–65, 156, 181
Australia, 229
Bai, 29
Bai Chongxi, 253
Bandung Conference, 320, 325, 341
Bang, 215
Banking system, 66–67, 187–189, 446
Bank of China, 188
Barton, Sidney, 174
Basel Mission, 70
al-Bashir, Omar, 464
Bauer, Max, 134
Beijing, 4, 7, 57, 175
Boxer Rebellion and, 127–129
refashioned in Soviet style, 303
urban planning and, 312–315
Ben Bella, Ahmed, 352
bin Laden, Osama, 401
Bliukher, Vasilii, 159, 163, 167
Bolshevik revolution, 158, 198
The Book of Rites, 77
The Book of Songs, 77
Borodin, Mikhail, 159, 161, 199, 200
Boxer Protocols, 130
Boxer Rebellion, 123, 127–130, 189
Braun, Otto, 199
Brezhnev, Leonid, 350
Bridgeman, Elijah, 70
Britain
Chinese immigrants to, 230
Chinese revolution and, 138–139
envoys sent to China, 37–38
Hong Kong and, 58–60
as major foreign power in China, 45–46, 50–51, 55, 56–57
relations with PRC, 325
success of Northern Expedition and, 165
Tibet and, 148–149
trade with China, 36–39, 40, 41, 44
British-American Tobacco, 184, 187
British-American War of 1812, effect on China, 38
Brown, Harold, 374
Brunei, 217
Buddhism, 189, 191
Burma, 21, 79, 263, 266–267, 321, 418, 420, 435
Bush, George H. W., 370, 382–383, 400
Bush, George W., 392, 400–401, 436, 437
Butterfield & Swire, 59
Cai Hesen, 238
Cai Yuanpei, 205
Cambodia, 219, 407–408, 420
Cambridge Seven, 190
Cameron, Ewen, 67
Canton system of trade, 36–37
Capitalism
China and reinvention of, 446–447
market economy in PRC, 385–389
Carter, Jimmy, 370, 374, 389
Castiglione, Giuseppe, 12
Castro, Fidel, 228, 352, 353
Catholic missionaries, 189–190
CCP. See Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
CCRG. See Central Cultural Revolution Group (CCRG)
Central Asia, China and, 9–10, 429–432
Central Cultural Revolution Group (CCRG), 356
Centrality, China’s sense of, 5–6, 459–462
Central Party School, 455
Chan, Julius, 229
Chang, José Antonio, 227
Chaplin, Charlie, 202
Charoen Pokphand (Zheng Dai), 218, 419
Chen, Eugene, 228
Chen, Percy (Pertsei Ievgenovich Tschen), 228
Chen, Steven, 225
Chen Duxiu, 106, 152, 153–154, 155, 158, 204
Cheng Shewo, 181
Cheng Xiaoqing, 202
Chen Jiongming, 156
Chennault, Anna, 208–209
Chennault, Claire, 197, 209
Chen Shuibian, 392, 444
Chen Xiangmei, 209
Chen Yi, 338, 356, 357, 362
Chen Yun, 371
Cheo Ying, Esther, 209
Chiang Ching-kuo (Jiang Jingguo), 197, 241, 373, 389
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), 72, 91, 200, 240
after Sino-Japanese War, 282, 283–284, 288–289
civil war and, 291
Communists and, 163–164, 199, 254–255
conversion to Christianity, 190
events leading to war with Japan and, 255–257
German advisers and, 134, 135
Guomingdang and, 162, 163–164, 165–168, 169, 195
Japan and, 106–107, 119, 253
Little and, 194
military advisers, 196, 197
Sino-Japanese War and, 247, 258, 261–262, 264, 266–269
Sun Yat-sen and, 159
Taiwan and, 321, 370
Wang Jingwei and, 274–275
Yalta Conference and, 280, 281, 282
Chiang Wei-kuo (Jiang Weiguo), 196–197
China
as allied power in World War I, 116–117
ASEAN and, 420–422
concept of state in, 107–108
conflict with Japan over Korea, 98–103
defined geographically, 3–4
defining, 3–4, 146, 151
economic stagnation in relation to other Asian nations, 405–406
effect of Sino-Japanese War on, 269–271
embrace of change, 440
emigration from, 26–28, 55–56
as empire, 3, 4
ethnicity in, 28–29, 69–70, 150–151, 456
foreign presence in mid-19th-century, 53–54
future of, 1, 439–469
influence of history in, 2, 16–17
influence of Japanese ideas on, 106–109
interest in West, 45–46
isolation of, 333–335
Japanese-occupied, 274–277
knowledge of geographical world, 31–32
as participant in global forms of modernity, 14–15
political change 1900–1920s, 123–126
relationship with other countries (see individual countries)
Republic of, 141–143, 144, 169
response to foreign culture, 78–79
status after World War II, 283–284
19th-century economy, 24–26
Third World and, 320–321, 325–326, 333, 334, 341–343, 346, 350–353, 369–370
urbanization in, 63–65
Western trade and, 49–50
See also People’s Republic of China (PRC); Qing China
China Can Say No, 395
China Merchant Steamship Navigation Company, 67
Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1
Chinese American Citizens’ Alliance, 225
Chinese civil war, 290–291
Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
advice for Soviets on foreign policy, 328–329
alliance with GMP, 265
anti-foreign campaigns, 298–300
Chen Duxiu and, 106
Chiang Kai-shek and, 163–164
Chinese diaspora and, 220, 240
civil war and, 273, 290–291
crackdown on demonstrations/freedom of speech, 329
creation of, 154, 158–159, 198–199
Cultural Revolution and, 321–324
destructiveness of, 16
education under, 308–311
effect of market economy on, 386–387
effect of war on, 286
end of WWII and, 288–289
fear of deviance and dissonance, 450–453
foreign relations, 329–332
government of, 297–304
as guerrilla force, 254
international reaction to, 323–327
Korean War and, 294, 296–297
Long March, 254–255
Manchuria and, 167
Maoism/Mao Zedong Thought, 287
membership, 286–287, 302
modern, 448–449
nationalism and, 456–457
nationalities’ policy, 315–318
1950s, 327–332
organization of lives of citizens, 300–301
recognition of pluralism and, 450
religion and, 326
response to returning Chinese, 243–245
Sino-Japanese War and, 249, 261–262, 272–274, 279
social tensions and, 448
Sovietization of, 302–303
Third World Countries and, 320–321, 325–326
urban planning and, 311–315
Vietnam and, 319–320
view of outside world, 318–321
See also People’s Republic of China (PRC)