23 Quoted in Cohen, Jews in the Channel Islands, 34.
24 BBC interview.
25 Quoted in Cohen, Jews in the Channel Islands, 52.
26 For the complete list see Cohen, Jews in the Channel Islands, 59.
27 Cohen, The Jews in the Channel Islands.
28 Cohen, The Jews in the Channel Islands, 92.
29 BBC interview.
30 BBC interview.
31 “Muslim” (in German, Musulmann) was the slang name given to prisoners who were weak from starvation and believed not to be able to survive for long. It was thought to be derived from the bowed-over appearance of these people, as if they were Muslims praying.
32 For the controversy surrounding Jaster’s death see Henryk Swiebocki, “Escapes from the Camp,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 4:199, n.532.
33 Quoted in Yitzhak Arad, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka—The Operation of the Reinhard Death Camps (Indiana University Press 1987), 87.
34 Quoted in Arad, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka, 84.
35 BBC interview.
36 Figure quoted in Arad, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka, 87.
37 The chronology that follows is based on Samuel Igiel’s report in I Remember Every Day—The Fates of the Jews of Przemyśl (Remembrance and Reconciliation Inc., Ann Arbor 2002), 237–40.
38 BBC interview.
39 Höss, Commandant, 91.
40 Höss, Commandant, 136.
41 Public Record Office file ref. HW 16/10.
Chapter 4: Corruption
1 See Yitzhak Arad, Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka—The Operation of the Reinhard Death Camps (Indiana University Press 1987), 165.
2 Note that, as far as the Nazis were concerned, Poland no longer existed, however, therefore Warsaw was no longer its capital.
3 BBC interview.
4 Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 1:103.
5 Irena Strzelecka and Piotr Setkiewicz, “The Construction, Expansion and Development of the Camp and Its Branches,” Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 1:104.
6 Franciszek Piper, “The Exploitation of Prisoner Labour,” in Auschwitz 1940–45 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 2:136.
7 BBC interview.
8 BBC interview.
9 Rudolf Höss, Commandant of Auschwitz (Phoenix Press 2000), 96.
10 Quoted in Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors (Basic Books 1986), 16. Response quoted in answer to question posed by the survivor-physician Dr. Ella Lingens-Reiner.
11 BBC interview.
12 Quoted in Irena Strzelecka, “Experiments,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945, 2:363.
13 BBC interview.
14 BBC interview.
15 Miklos, Nyiszli, Auschwitz, A Doctor’s Eyewitness Account (Mayflower Books 1973), 53.
16 Aleksander Lasik, “The Organizational Structure of Auschwitz Camp,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945, 1:203.
17 BBC interview.
18 See the testimony of Konrad Morgen in Frankfurt am Main on March 8, 1962, and at the Auschwitz trial in Frankfurt, in Hermann Langbein, Der Auschwitz-Prozess: eine Dokumentation (Neue Kritik, Frankfurt 1995), 143–45.
19 See the minutes of the interview of Eleonore Hodys by Konrad Morgen, autumn 1944, Institut fur Zeitgeschichte ZS 599.
20 For further details on the Morgen investigation and Höss’s removal and alleged affair, see Jerzy Rawicz, The Everyday Life of a Mass Murderer (Dzien Powszedni Ludobějcy) (Czytelnik, Warsaw 1973).
21 Information from the pioneering research in the forthcoming Ph.D. thesis on this subject by Robert Sommer.
22 BBC interview.
23 BBC interview.
24 BBC interview. But see also Thomas Toivi Blatt, From the Ashes of Sobibor (Northwestern University Press 1997).
25 BBC interview.
26 Mussolini was removed from leadership of Italy by the Italian king in July 1943. He then was rescued by the Germans from imprisonment in September and placed at the head of a puppet regime. During this period of German occupation (unlike the situation under Mussolini’s direct rule), Italian Jews were subject to deportation to Nazi death camps. Approximately 20 percent of Italian Jews perished during the war.
27 BBC interview.
28 BBC interview.
29 BBC interview.
30 Quoted in Michael Mogensen, “The Rescue of the Danish Jews,” in Mette Bastholm Jensen and Steven L.B. Jensen (eds.), Denmark and the Holocaust (Department for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Copenhagen 2003), 45.
31 Quoted in Mogensen, “Rescue,” 33. See also Leni Yahil, The Rescue of Danish Jewry: Test of a Democracy (The Jewish Publication Society of America 1969).
32 Quoted in Mogensen, ”Rescue,” 58.
Chapter 5: Frenzied Killing
1 Christian Gerlach and Goetz Aly, Das letzte Kapitel (“The Last Chapter”) (Fischer 2004).
2 SIME Report No.1, Interrogation of Joel Brand, June 16–30, 1944, File no. SIME/P 7769, FO 371/42811; and Brand’s testimony at the Eichmann trial, session no. 56, June 29, 1961.
3 See SIME Report No. 3, Interrogations of Bandi Grosz, June 6–22, 1944, File no. SIME/P 7755, TNA 371/42811, pp.42–43.
4 Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 5:198.
5 BBC interview.
6 BBC interview.
7 BBC interview.
8 Quoted in Andrzej Strzelecki, “Utilization of the Victims’ Corpses,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 2:407.
9 Amidst a Nightmare of Crime: Manuscripts of Members of Sonderkommando (Publications of State Museum at Oświęcim 1973), 119.
10 Amidst a Nightmare, 119.
11 Amidst a Nightmare, 182.
12 Amidst a Nightmare, 185.
13 Amidst a Nightmare, 181.
14 Miklos Nyiszli, Auschwitz: A Doctor’s Eyewitness Account (Arcade 1993), 4.
15 Yehuda Bauer, Jews for Sale? (Yale University Press 1994), 180.
16 Bauer, Jews for Sale? 167.
17 BBC interview.
18 BBC interview.
19 See Yehuda Bauer’s comments in Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (Macmillan, New York), 1:790.
20 BBC interview (from Timewatch: Himmler, Hitler and the End of the Reich, Jan. 19, 2000, Detlef Siebert, producer; Laurence Rees, executive producer).
21 “Gathering and Disseminating Evidence of the Crime,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 4:307–15.
22 “Gathering and Disseminating Evidence,” 315.
23 See esp. Richard Breitman, What the British and Americans Knew (Allen Lane The Penguin Press 1998), chap. 7 “Auschwitz Practically Decoded in Official Secrets—What the Nazis Planned.”
24 Quoted in What the British and Americans Knew, 120.
25 Quoted in Robert Jan van Pelt, The Case for Auschwitz (Indiana University Press 2002), 154.
26 Quoted in Martin Gilbert’s essay “The Contemporary Case for the Feasibility of Bombing Auschwitz,” in Michael J. Neufeld and Michael Berenbaum (eds.), Allies and the Holocaust in the Bombing of Auschwitz (St. Martin’s Press 2000), 66.
27 Quoted in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 67.
28 Quoted in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 68.
29 Quoted in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 70.
30 Quoted in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 73 (for a detailed analysis of the documents see Gilbert’s full essay at 65–75).
31 Deborah E. Lipstadt, “The Failure to Rescue and Contemporary American Jewish Historiography of the Holocaust: Judging from a Distance,” in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 229.
32 James H. Kitchens III, “The Bombing of Auschwitz Re-examined,” in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 80–100.
33 Stuart G. Erdheim, “Could the Allies Have Bombed Auschwitz-Birkenau?” in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 127–56.
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34 Richard Levy, “The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited: a Critical Analysis,” in Neufeld and Berenbaum (eds.), The Bombing of Auschwitz, 114.
35 Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (Pimlico 2001, originally published 1981), 121.
36 Quoted in Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies, 127.
37 Quoted in Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies, 127.
38 Quoted in Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies, 139.
39 BBC interview.
40 BBC interview.
41 Auschwitz 1940–1945, 5:217.
42 See the testimony of Kurt Becher, July 10, 1947, cited in Eichmann interrogations, TAE Vol. VIII, 2895–96.
Chapter 6: Liberation and Retribution
1 BBC interview.
2 Andrzej Strzelecki, “The Liquidation of the Camp,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 5:45.
3 Quoted in van Pelt, The Case for Auschwitz, 159. For an examination of the press treatment of Auschwitz post-liberation, see also 158–65.
4 van Pelt, The Case for Auschwitz, 164.
5 Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (Macmillan, New York), 1:350; Yehuda Bauer, “The Death Marches, January–May 1945,” Modern Judaism (Feb. 1983), 1–21.
6 BBC interview.
7 BBC interview.
8 BBC interview.
9 BBC interview (from Timewatch: Himmler, Hitler and the End of the Reich, Jan. 19, 2000, Detlef Siebert, producer; Laurence Rees, executive producer).
10 Quoted in Timewatch: Himmler, Hitler.
11 BBC interview (from Timewatch: Himmler, Hitler).
12 BBC interview (from Timewatch: Himmler, Hitler).
13 BBC interview.
14 BBC interview.
15 BBC interview.
16 BBC interview.
17 Gunnar S. Paulsson, Secret Garden: the Hidden Jews of Warsaw (Yale University Press 2002). Approximately 28,000 Polish Jews escaped (or never entered) the Warsaw ghetto, with 11,000 surviving the war. This often was thanks to the help of the non-Jewish Polish population.
18 BBC interview.
19 BBC interview.
20 BBC interview.
21 BBC interview.
22 Tom Segev, The Seventh Million (Hill and Wang 1994), 147–49
23 Segev, The Seventh Million, 140–46.
24 This pioneering research was conducted by David List of the BBC History Unit.
25 Rupert Butler, Legions of Death (Hamlyn 1983); Captain Cross to Colonel Felix Robson (curator, Intelligence Corps Museum), Museum of Military Intelligence, Chicksands.
26 BBC interview.
27 Rudolf Höss, Commandant of Auschwitz (Phoenix Press 2000), 166.
28 BBC interview, quoted in Laurence Rees, Horror in the East (BBC Books 2001), 119.
29 Lasik, “The Apprehension and Punishment of the Auschwitz Concentration Camp Staff,” in Auschwitz 1940–1945 (Auschwitz State Museum 2000), 5:99–119.
30 Lasik, “Apprehension and Punishment,” 116.
31 These figures were supplied by Professor Piper of the Auschwitz State Museum.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Insert 1:
Heinrich Himmler with Rudolf Höss: Yad Vashem
Adolph Hitler: Walter Frentz Archive
Reinhard Heydrich: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz
Hans Friedrich: Hans Friedrich
An execution somewhere in the East: Ullstein Bild
Street scene in the Łódźghetto in Poland: Jewish Museum, Frankfurt
Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski: Jewish Museum, Frankfurt
Rumkowski talking with Himmler: Jewish Museum, Frankfurt
Jewish men and women weaving baskets: Jewish Museum, Frankfurt
Children working in the Łódź ghetto: Jewish Museum, Frankfurt
Himmler studying plans: Yad Vashem
“Himmler was well pleased with the progress”: Yad Vashem
Insert 2:
Auschwitz prisoners employed at workshop: Auschwitz Museum
Auschwitz prisoners digging drainage ditches at Birkenau: Auschwitz Museum
“Canada”: Yad Vashem
Oskar Groening: Oskar Groening
Kazimierz Piechowski: Kazimierz Piechowski
Therese Steiner: Wendy Davenport
Helena Citrónová: Helena Citrónová
A transport of Hungarian Jews arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau: Yad Vashem
Separation by sex of the Hungarian Jews: Yad Vashem
Completed separation of the sexes: Yad Vashem
A line of male Jews being assessed by a Nazi doctor: Yad Vashem
A family of Hungarian Jews selected to die: Yad Vashem
The ovens in the Auschwitz crematoria: Auschwitz Museum
Crematorium 4: Auschwitz Museum
Crematorium 3: Auschwitz Museum
Rudolph Höss in captivity: Yad Vashem
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is a book that developed from a television series I wrote and produced, and so there are many people whom I must thank.
The television series (and therefore this book) exists because of the initial enthusiasm and commitment of Mark Thompson, then Director of BBC Television. It says a lot about how long it takes to finance, develop, and make a project like this that, in between Mark’s authorizing the series and its eventual broadcast, Mark left the BBC, took the job of running Channel 4, was appointed Director General of the BBC, and returned there.
Many others in BBC Television also supported the series, notably Jane Root (then controller of BBC2), Glenwyn Benson (Control of Factual Commissioning), and Emma Swain (Commissioner of Specialist Factual Programmes). In particular, my immediate boss, Keith Scholey (Controller of Specialist Factual), was extremely understanding and full of good advice.
Many distinguished academics contributed to the project. The series historical and script consultant, Professor Sir Ian Kershaw, brought an extraordinary level of insight to the series—it is no accident that he is a scholar laden with honors. I owe him a huge debt, both for his scholarship and for his friendship. Professor David Cesarani was also massively influential in shaping both my views and the television series, as was Professor Christopher Browning. It would be difficult to find two more eminent experts on the Nazis’ “Final Solution.” Professor Robert Jan van Pelt was of enormous assistance in helping us understand the architecture of the camp.
The directors, scholars, and administrative staff at the Auschwitz–Birkenau State Museum in Poland were also hugely helpful. Those at the museum that I must thank in particular include Igor Bartosik, Edyta Chowaniec, Adam Cyra, Jadwiga Dąbrowska, Dorota Grela, Wanda Hutny, Helena Kubica, Mirosław Obstarczyk, Krystyna Oleksy, Jozef Orlicki, Dr. Franciszek Piper, Wojciech Płosa, Dr. Piotr Setkiewicz, Kazimierz Smoleń, Dr. Andrzej Strzelecki, Dr. Henryk Świebocki, Jerzy Wróblewski, and Roman Zbrzeski.
Also in connection with our Polish research, we received great assistance from Kazimierz Albin (head of the Society for the Protection of Auschwitz), Władysław Bartoszewski (former Polish foreign minister), Halina Elczewska, Abraham and Ester Frischer, Dr. Józef Geresz, Bernadetta Gronek, John Hartman, Alicja Kościan, Edward Kopówka, Dr. Aleksander Lasik, Anna Machcewicz, the Oświęcim Mayor’s Office, Mariusz Jerzy Olbromski, Łucja Pawlicka-Nowak (director of the Chełmno Museum), Robert Rydzoń, Hubert Rogozinski, Jacek Szwic, Dr. Marian Turski (International Auschwitz Council), and Michalina Wysocka.
On the Channel Islands, Frederick Cohen gave us the benefit of his unique historical knowledge, and in France Serge Klarsfeld and Adeline Suard were of great assistance. Particular mention should be made of the help afforded to us at Israel’s Yad Vashem by Dr. Gideon Greif, and elsewhere in Israel we benefited greatly from the work of Nava Mizrachi. In Slovakia, Ivan Kamenec and Dr. Eduard Niznansky helped us; and in Germany we were aided by Dr. Andrej Angrick, Martin Cueppers, Wolf Gebhardt, Niels Gutschow, Peter Klein, Michaela Lichtenstein, Dr. Bogdan Musial, Dr. Dieter Pohl, Dr. Volker Reiss, Robert Sommer, Dr. Frank Stucke, and Pet
er Witte. In Russia, Dr. Sergey Sluch was a good friend to the project. In Hungary very useful help was provided by Dr. Krisztina Fenyo; and in the Ukraine by Taras Shumeiko. In the United States, Adam Levy did a terrific job for us.
Obviously, I owe a huge debt to the production team of the TV series. In particular, I must thank Detlef Siebert, who not only brilliantly directed the drama sequences across the whole series but also offered incisive criticism and advice for the rest of the content. He possesses an exceptional mind. The two documentary directors, Martina Balazova and Dominic Sutherland, also did a first-rate job, often working with our faithful camera team of Martin Patmore and Brian Biffin. Dominic—a tower of intelligence and good sense during the post-production of the series—also supervised the graphic content with the help of the Moving Picture Company and John Kennedy. Alan Lygo, the best film editor in television, made a substantial contribution in the cutting room. Tanya Batchelor did an excellent job as an assistant producer on the series and Anna Toborska was outstanding as our specialist Polish researcher. Declan Smith gathered the archive for the series, and Rebecca Maidens and Cara Goold were the production coordinators; all of them made important contributions. Emily Brownridge could not have done a finer job as production manager, and Anna Mishcon and Laura Davey were always supportive as production executives. My own assistants, first Sarah Hall and subsequently Michelle Gribbon, also were always willing to help.
Special mention must be made of the excellent guidance I received from our American co-producers, KCET. Karen Hunte, Al Jerome, Mary Mazur, and especially Megan Callaway all contributed to this work, as did Coby Atlas at PBS. Sally Potter and Martin Redfern at BBC Books were model and supportive publishers, as were Peter Osnos, Clive Priddle, and Kate Darnton at PublicAffairs in New York. As usual, Andrew Nurnberg gave fine advice.
My own family—my children, Benedict, Camilla, and Oliver, and my wife Helena—helped me more than I can say. It is not necessarily always pleasant to live with someone whose head is full of information about Auschwitz and the Nazis, and my family tolerated that and more besides.
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