On the Zionist period, the twentieth century and the Epilogue: I owe the greatest thanks to Dr. Nadim Shehadi, Associate Fellow of the Middle East Programme, Chatham House, and to Professor Colin Shindler, SOAS, both of whom read and corrected these entire sections. I am grateful to David and Jackie Landau of the Economist and Haaretz for their corrections. Thanks to Dr. Jacques Gautier; to Dr. Albert Aghazarian; to Jamal al-Nusseibeh for ideas and contacts; to Huda Imam for her tour of the Security Wall; to Yakov Loupo for his research on the ultra-Orthodox.
I owe much to Dr. John Casey of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, who nobly and mercilessly corrected the entire text, as did George Hintlian, historian of the Ottoman period, Secretary of the Armenian Patriarchate 1975–95. Special thanks to Maral Amin Quttieneh for her translation of Arabic materials into English.
Thanks for advice and family history to the following members of the Jerusalem Families interviewed or consulted: Muhammad al-Alami, Nasseredin al-Nashashibi, Jamal al-Nusseibeh, Zaki al-Nusseibeh, Wajeeh al-Nusseibeh, Saida al-Nusseibeh, Mahmoud al-Jarallah, Huda Imam of the Jerusalem Institute, Haifa al-Khalidi, Khader al-Shihabi, Said al-Husseini, Ibrahim al-Husseini, Omar al-Dajani, Aded al-Judeh, Maral Amin Quttieneh, Dr. Rajai M. al-Dajani, Ranu al-Dajani, Adeb al-Ansari, Naji Qazaz, Yasser Shuki Toha, owner of my favourite Abu Shukri restaurant; Professor Rashid Khalidi of Columbia University.
Thanks to Shmuel Rabinowitz, Rabbi of the Western Wall and the Holy Sites; to Father Athanasius Macora of the Catholics, Father Samuel Aghoyan, Armenian Superior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Father Afrayem Elorashamily of the Copts, Syriac Bishop Severius, Syriac Father Malke Morat.
I am grateful to Shimon Peres, the President of the State of Israel, and Lord Weidenfeld, both of whom shared memories and ideas; to Princess Firyal of Jordan for her memories of Jordanian Jerusalem; and to Prince and Princess Talal bin Muhammad of Jordan.
Thanks to HRH the Duke of Edinburgh for his advice and for checking the text on his mother Princess Andrew of Greece and his aunt Grand Duchess Ella; and to HRH the Prince of Wales. I am especially grateful for access to their private family archives to the Earl of Morley and to the Hon. and Mrs. Nigel Parker for their charming hospitality.
Yitzhak Yaacovy was the man who introduced me to Jerusalem: survivor of Auschwitz, fighter in the 1948 War of Independence, man of letters, young aide in Ben-Gurion’s office, he was the long-serving Chairman of the East Jerusalem Development Company under Mayor Teddy Kollek.
The envoys of both the State of Israel and the Palestinian Authority were immensely generous in time, ideas, information and conversation: thanks to Ron Prosor, the Israeli Ambassador to London, Rani Gidor, Sharon Hannoy and Ronit Ben Dor at the Israeli Embassy; Professor Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian Authority Ambassador in London.
William Dalrymple and Charles Glass were both extremely generous throughout this project with ideas, materials and reading-lists. The Jerusalem Foundation was incredibly helpful: thanks to Ruth Chesin, Nurit Gordon, Alan Freeman and Uri Dromi, Director of Mishkenot Shaanim. No one helped as much with academic and other contacts as John Levy of the Friends of Israel Educational Foundation and of the Academic Study Group, and Ray Bruce, veteran television producer.
Thanks to Peter Sebag-Montefiore and his daughter Louise Aspin-all for sharing Geoffrey Sebag-Montefiore’s papers; to Kate Sebag-Montefiore for research into William Sebag-Montefiore’s adventures.
Thanks for help, advice, encouragement to: Amos and Nily Oz; Paul Vester, Chairman of the American Colony Hotel; Rachel Lev, Archivist of the American Colony Archives; Diana Aho of the American Colony Hotel; Munther Fahmi at the American Colony Bookshop; Philip Windsor-Aubrey; David Hare; David Kroyanker; Hannah Kedar; Fred Iseman; Lea Carpenter Brokaw; Danna Harman; Dorothy and David Harman; Caroline Finkel; Lorenza Smith; Professor Benjamin Kedar; Professor Reuven Amitai; Yaov Farhi; Diala Khlat; Ziyad Clot; Youssef Khlat; Rania Joubran; Rebecca Abram; Sir Rocco and Lady Forte; Professor Salim Tamari; Kenneth Rose; Dorrit Moussaeff and her father Shlomo Moussaeff; Sir Ronald and Lady Cohen; David Khalili; Richard Foreman; Ryan Prince; Tom Holland; Tarek Abu Zayyad; Professor Israel Finkelstein; Professor Avigdor Shinan; Professor Yair Zakovitch; Jonathan Foreman; Musa Klebnikoff; Arlene Lascona; Ceri Aston; Rev. Robin Griffith-Jones, the Master of the Temple; Hani Abu Diab; Miriam Ovits; Joana Schliemann; Sarah Helm; Professor Simon Goldhill; Dr. Dorothy King; Dr. Philip Mansel; Sam Kiley; John Micklethwait, editor of the Economist; Gideon Lichfield; Rabbi Mark Winer; Maurice Bitton, the Curator of Bevis Marks Synagogue; Rabbi Abraham Levy; Professor Harry Zeitlin; Professor F. M. al-Eloischari; Melanie Fall; Rabbi David Goldberg; Melanie Gibson; Annabelle Weidenfeld; Adam, Gill, David and Rachel Montefiore; Dr. Gabriel Barkey; Marek Tamm; Ethan Bronner of the New York Times; Henry Hemming; William Sieghart. Thanks to Tom Morgan for help with the research.
Thanks to my agent Georgina Capel and my international rights agents Abi Gilbert and Romily Must; to my British publishers Alan Samson, Ion Trewin and Susan Lamb, my brilliant editor Bea Hemming at Weidenfeld; and to Peter James, the master of copy-editors; to my most long-standing publishers: Sonny Mehta at Knopf; in Brazil to Luiz Schwarz and Ana Paula Hisayama at Companhía das Letras; in France, Mireille Paoloni at Calmann Lévy; in Germany, Peter Sillem at Fischer; in Israel, Ziv Lewis at Kinneret; in Holland, Henk ter Borg, at Nieuw Amsterdam; in Norway, Ida Bernsten and Gerd Johnsen at Cappelens; in Poland, Jolanta Woloszanska at Magnum; in Portugal, Alexandra Louro at Alêtheia Editores; in Spain, Carmen Esteban at Crítica; in Estonia, Krista Kaer of Varrak; and in Sweden, Per Faustino and Stefan Hilding at Norstedts.
My parents Dr. Stephen and April Sebag-Montefiore have been superb editors of all my books. Above all I want to thank my wife, Santa, who has been the patient, encouraging and loving sultana of this long process. Santa and my children, Lily and Sasha, have, like me, undoubtedly suffered the full effects of the Jerusalem Syndrome. They may never recover, but they probably know more about the Rock, the Wall and the Sepulchre than many a priest, rabbi or mullah.
Notes
PREFACE
1. Aldous Huxley quoted in A. Elon, Jerusalem 62. G. Flaubert, Les Oeuvres complètes 1.290. Flaubert on Jerusalem: Frederick Brown, Flaubert 231–9, 247, 256–61. Melville on Jerusalem: H. Melville, Journals 84–94. Bulos Said quoted in Edward W. Said, Out of Place 7. Nazmi Jubeh: interview with author. David Lloyd George in Ronald Storrs, Orientations 394 (henceforth Storrs). For my introduction I am indebted to the superb discussions of identity, coexistence and culture in Levantine cities in the following books: Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand, Ottoman Jerusalem: Living City 1517–1917; Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean; Mark Mazower, Salonica: City of Ghosts; Adam LeBor, City of Oranges: Jews and Arabs in Jaffa.
PROLOGUE
1. Josephus, The New Complete Works, “The Jewish War” (henceforth JW) 5.446–52. This account is based on Josephus; the Roman sources; Martin Goodman, Rome and Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilisations (henceforth Goodman), and also the latest archaeology.
2. JW 5.458–62, 4.324.
3. JW 4.559–65.
4. JW 5.429–44.
5. JW 6.201–14. All biblical quotations from the Authorized Version: Matthew 8.22.
6. JW 6.249–315.
7. JW 9. Tacitus, Histories 13. This account of the archaeology is based on: Ronny Reich, “Roman Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 ce: Flavius Josephus’ Account and Archaeological Record,” in G. Theissen et al. (eds.), Jerusalem und die Länder. City peculiar, bigotry: Tacitus 2.4–5. Jews and Jerusalem/Syrians/death agony of a famous city/Jewish superstitions/600,000 inside: Tacitus 5.1–13. Jerusalem before siege: JW 4.84–5.128. Titus and siege: JW 5.136–6.357. Demolition and fall: JW 6.358–7.62. Titus’ prowess: Suetonius, Twelve Caesars 5. Prisoners and death: Goodman 454–5. Josephus saved crucified and friends: Josephus, “Life” 419 and JW 6.418–20. One-third of population dead: Peter Schäfer, History of the Jews in the
Greco-Roman World (henceforth Schäfer) 131. Arm of woman/burnt house: Shanks 102. Escape of Christians: Eusebius, Church History 3.5. Escape of ben Zakkai: F. E. Peters, Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims and Prophet from the Days of Abraham to the Beginning of Modern Times (henceforth Peters, Jerusalem) 111–20. Ronny Reich, Gideon Avni, Tamar Winter, Jerusalem Archaeological Park (henceforth Archaeological Park) 15 and 96 (Tomb of Zechariah). Oleg Grabar, B. Z. Kedar (eds.), Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade (henceforth Sacred Esplanade): Patrich, in Sacred Esplanade 37–73.
PART ONE: JUDAISM
1. Ronny Reich, Eli Shukron and Omri Lernau, “Recent Discoveries in the City of David, Jerusalem: Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring,” Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69. Also conversations with Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron. On population and shrine-castles over springs: conversations with Rafi Greenberg. Richard Miles, Ancient Worlds 1–7.
2. Tel Armarna: I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Text (henceforth Finkelstein/Silberman) 238–41. Peters, Jerusalem 6–14.
3. Egypt, Moses and Exodus: Exodus 1. “I am who I am”: Exodus 3.14. Abraham covenant: Genesis 17.8–10. Melchizedek King of Salem: Genesis 14.18. Isaac: Genesis 22.2. Ramases II and Exodus: Toby Wilkinson, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt (henceforth Egypt) 324–45; Merneptah 343–5; Israel, Sea Peoples, Philistines 343–53. Nature of God and the two biblical writers: Lester L. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 150–65. Finkelstein/Siblerman 110. Robin Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 49–57, 57–70, 92, 182, 198–202. Wayne T. Pitard, “Before Israel: Syria–Palestine in the Bronze Age,” in M. Coogan (ed.), Oxford History of the Biblical World (henceforth Oxford History) 25–9. Edward F. Campbell, “A Land Divided: Judah and Israel from Death of Solomon to the Fall of Samaria,” in Oxford History 209. Two sets of Ten Commandments: see Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Two sackings of Shechem: Genesis 34 and Judges 9. Goliath two versions: 1 Samuel (henceforth S) 17 and 2 S 21.19. T. C. Mitchell, The Bible in the British Museum (henceforth BM), 14 Merneptah Stela. Victor Avigdor Hurowitz, “Tenth Century to 586 BC: House of the Lord (Beyt YHWH),” in Sacred Esplanade 15–35. H. J. Franken, “Jerusalem in the Bronze Age,” in K. J. Asali (ed.), Jerusalem in History (henceforth Asali) 11–32.
4. Saul and David: 1 S 8–2 S 5. David and Goliath 1 S 17 and 2 S 21.19. Saul’s armour-bearer and lyre-player: 1 S 16.14–23. Anointed by Samuel: 1 S 16.1–13. Marries Saul’s daughter: 1 S 18.17–27. Ziklag: 1 S 27.6. Rule in Hebron: 2 S 5.5. Lament: 2 S 1.19–27. King of Judah: 2 S 2.4. David’s Philistine and Cretan guards: 2 S 8.18 and 1 Chronicles (henceforth C) 18.17. Ronald de Vaux, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions (henceforth de Vaux) 91–7. Slings: James K. Hoffmeier, Archaeology of the Bible (henceforth Hoffmeier) 84–5. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, “Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring,” Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69.
5. 2 S 6, 2 S 7.2–13. Takes Jerusalem: 2 S 5, 2 S 24.25, 2 S 5.6–9, 2 S 7.2–3, 2 S 6.13–18. Renames Jerusalem: 2 S 5.7–9 and 1 C 11.5–7. Builds wall: 2 S 5.9. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. David’s palace and terraced structure: Dan Bahat, Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem (henceforth Bahat) 24. God and the Ark: de Vaux 294–300 and 308–10. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.
6. 2 S 6.20.
7. Bathsheba: 2 S 11–12.
8. Absalom and court politics: 2 S 13–24.
9. 2 S 24.6 and 1 C 21.15. Abraham: Genesis 22, 1 Kings (henceforth K) 5.3. Threshing-floor and altar: 2 S 24.19–24, 1 C 21.28–22.5, 1 K 1. David bloodshedder: 1 C 22.8 and 28.3.
10. Death and Solomon anointment: 1 K 1 and 2, 1 C 28–9. Burial: 1 K 2.10. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. John Hyrcanus plunders David’s tomb: Josephus, “Jewish Antiquities” (henceforth JA) VII.15.3.
11. Seizure of power: 1 K 1–2.
12. Solomon, chariots/horse-gate: 1 K 9–10, 2 K 11.16. Horse-dealing/chariots: 1 K 10.28–9. Gold: 1 K 10.14. Megiddo, Hazor, Gezer: 1 K 9.15. Ark installed and Temple inaugurated: 1 K 8 and 2 C 7. David’s spears in Temple: 2 K 11.10. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 134–40 and 191–5. 1 K 2–7 and 1 K 10. Horses, chariots, magnificence: 1 K 10.14–19. Gateways: 1 K 9.15–27. Fleet: 1 K 9: 26–8 and 1 K 10.11–13. Empire and administration: 1 K 4.17–19. Wives: 1 K 11.3. 3,000 proverbs and 1,005 songs: 1 K 4.32. With whips: 1 K 12.11. Temple and palace: 1 K 6–7, 2 C 2–4. Ezekiel 40–4. 1 C 28.11–19. The Rock tomb: Shanks 165–74. Carol Meyers, “Kinship and Kingship: The Early Monarchy,” in Oxford History 197–203. Traditions of the rock: Rivka Gonen, “Was the Site of the Jerusalem Temple Originally a Cemetery?,” Biblical Archaeology Review May–June 1985, 44–55. BM, lavers 45; Phoenician style 61. Trade with Hiram and Phoenicians/craftsmen/origin of Phoenicians/Temple designs and as “corporations” with barbers, prostitutes: Richard Miles, Carthage Must be Destroyed 30–5. Israelites and Phoenicians, purple, alphabet: Miles, Ancient Worlds, 57–68. Temple as “site par excellence for divine–human communication”: A. Neuwirth, “Jerusalem in Islam: The Three Honorary Names of the City,” in Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (eds.), Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City, 1517–1917 (henceforth OJ) 219. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. Graeme Auld and Margreet Steiner, Jerusalem 1 54. Solomon and Pharaoh, spoils and daughter: 1 K 9.16. Pharaoh Siamun raid; daughter marriage: Wilkinson, Egypt 404. Tel Qasile potsherd on gold in Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 235–40. De Vaux 31–7, 108–14, 223–4, 274–94. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 113–18. Ivory in Sargon’s Palace in Assyria and King Ahab in Samaria: 1 K 22.39. Phoenician/Syrian parallels: Shanks 123–34 and 165–74. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. On archaeology: author conversations with Dan Bahat and Ronny Reich. New dating of Megiddo, Hazor, Gezer: Finkelstein/Silberman 134–41; Omrid building in Megiddo vs. Solomon: Finkelstein/Silberman 180–5. Nicola Schreiber, Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age, on the chronology of Black-on-Red and its implications 83–213, especially Section I “10th Century and the Problem of Shishak” 85–113. Ayelet Gilboa and Ilan Sharon, “An Archaeological Contribution to the Early Iron Age Chronological Debate: Alternative Chronologies for Phoenicia and Their Effects on the Levant, Cyprus and Greece,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 332, November 2003, 7–80.
13. Israel breakaway: 1 K 11–14 Rehoboam. Kings of Israel Asa to Omri: 1 K 15–17—Zimri’s massacre—pisseth against wall: 1 K 16.11. Sheshonq (Shishak), attack on Jerusalem: Wilkinson, Egypt 405–9. Osorkon: Hoffmeier 107. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 81. Campbell, Oxford History 212–15. Meyers, Oxford History 175. De Vaux 230. Lane Fox, Unauthorized Version 260. Omrid vs. Solomonic structures: Finkelstein/Silberman 180–5.
14. Ahab/Jehoshaphat: 1 K 15–18, 2 K 1–8. Jehoshaphat: I K 15–24 and 2 C 17–20. Finkelstein/Silberman 231–4. Jehu: 2 K 10.1–35. Tel Dan stele: Hoffmeier 87. Ahab vs. Assyria/Shalmaneser Monolith inscription: Campbell, Oxford History 220–3. Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III: BM 49–54. Moabite Stone: BM 56.
15. Jehu: 2 K 9–11, 2 C 22. BM 49–56. Tel Dan inscription: Campbell, Oxford History 212. Athaliah: 2 K 11–12. Campbell, Oxford History 228–31. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, “Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring,” Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69: Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35. Uzziah/Jotham: 2 K 13–16. Expanding Jerusalem: 2 C 26.9. Fall of Israel/Jerusalem transformed: Finkelstein/Silberman 211–21, 243–8.
16. Ahaz and Isaiah—all references from Book of Isaiah: vision of Jerusalem as sinful nation 1.4; Jerusalem as woman-harlot 1.21 and mount of the daughter of Zion, the hill of Jerusalem 10.32; Jerusalem as guide to nations 2.1–5; Zion in every place 4.5; God in temple 6.1–2; Ahaz 7; Emmanuel 8.8 and a child born 9.6–7; judgement and justice/wolf and lamb, guidance to gentiles 11.4–11; judgement day 26.1–2 and 14–19. Fall of Israel: 2 K 15–17. Finkelstein/Silberman 211–21, 243–8. Jews of Iran: K. Farrokh, Shadows in the Des
ert: Ancient Persia at War (henceforth Farrokh) 25–7. M. Cogan, “Into Exile: From the Assyrian Conquest of Israel to the Fall of Babylon,” in Oxford History 242–3. Campbell, Oxford History 236–9. Latest findings on Jewish genetics: “Studies Show Jews’ Genetic Similiarity,” New York Times 9 June 2010.
17. Hezekiah: 2 K 18–20, 2 C 29–31. New walls, houses: Isaiah 22.9–11. New Jerusalem: swords into ploughshares: Isaiah 2.4; justice 5.8–25, 1.12–17. Sennacherib and Hezekiah: Isaiah 36–8. New rites: 2 C 30. Jeremiah 41.5. Deuteronomy 28.49. Hezekiah’s tunnel and building: 2 K 20.20 and 2 C 32.30. New quarters: 2 C 32.5. Siloam Inscription: Bahat, Atlas 26–7. Jar-handles belonging to the king: BM 62. Lmlk: for the king—Hoffmeier 108. Reich, Shukron and Lernau, “Findings from the Iron Age II in the Rock-Cut Pool near the Spring,” Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 153–69. Royal Steward inscription: BM 65—confirming Isaiah 22. 15–25. Judaean headdress: BM 72. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 169–70. Archaeology 66; the wall, 137, possibly Nehemiah 3.8. Finkelstein/Silberman 234–43 and 251–64. Hurowitz, Oxford History 15–35.
18. Sennacherib and Assyria: this section is based on J. E. Curtis and J. E. Reade (eds.), Art and Empire: Treasures from Assyria in the British Museum, including: the dress of a Judaean soldier 71; the dress of Sennacherib on campaign is based on the reliefs of various Assyrian kings on campaign; the siege of Jerusalem is based on the Lachish reliefs of Nineveh. Assyria: Miles, Ancient Worlds 68–77. Grabbe, Ancient Israel 167; Assyrian texts 185. Egyptian rule: Wilkinson, Egypt 430–35. Disaster of war: Nahum 3.1–3. Micah 1.10–13. Isaiah 1o: 28–32 and chapters 36–8. Cogan, Oxford History 244–51.
19. Manasseh: 2 K 21. Child sacrifice: Exodus 22.29. Kings of Jerusalem child sacrifice: 2 K 16.3 and 21.6. See also: 2 C 28.3, Leviticus 18.21, 2 K 17.31, 2 K 17.17, Jeremiah 7.31 (see Rashi commentary) and Jeremiah 32.35. Phoenician/Carthaginian child sacrifice and discovery of tophet in Tunisia: Miles, Carthage Must Be Destroyed 68–73. On Manasseh: Finkelstein/Silberman 263–77. Miles, Ancient Worlds, Grabbe, Ancient Israel 169. Cogan, Oxford History 252–7. Hurowitz, Sacred Esplanade 15–35.
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