The Act of Creation

by Arthur Koestler

  Here, I believe, is the clue to the scientist's ultimate motivation -- the equivalent of the meeting of the tragic and the trivial planes in the artist's mind. Peering through his microscope or polariscope, in a never-ending series of dreary, technical, specialized investigations of amyl acid, tartaric acid, butyric acid, Pasteur was attending on one level to the business in hand -- the beets of Mr. Bigo; on another he was scanning the secret of life 'through veils getting thinner and thinner'. Thus did some early explorers nourish the secret, childish hope to find at the North Pole a crater revealing the axis on which the earth turns. So did the Phoenician seamen hope to find, beyond the pillars of Hercules, the island of Atlantis.

  When he was thirty and newly married, Pasteur, though almost penniless, embarked on an expedition through Central Europe -- a treasure-hunt for an elusive commodity dear to his heart: paratartaric acid, a chemical derived from the deposit in the vats of fermented wine (p. 193 f). He returned and described this Odyssey in an article in the Strasbourg newspaper La Verité, ending with the epic words: 'Never was treasure sought, never adored beauty pursued over hill and dale with greater ardour.'

  The dream which turned the tartar-crystals into a symbol of the secret of life proved immensely fertile. But since the actual experiments of creating life had failed, Pasteur, in his later years, reversed his opinions and embarked on another celebrated controversy to prove that the alleged 'spontaneous generation' of micro-organisms (without progenitors, out of fermenting or putrefying matter) was a legend. 'It is a striking fact,' writes Dubos, 'perhaps worthy of the attention of psychoanalysts, that Pasteur devoted much of his later life to demonstrating that nature operates as if it were impossible to achieve what he -- Pasteur -- had failed to do. . . . Just as he had failed in his attempts to create or modify life, so he proved that others, who had claimed to be successful where he had failed, had been merely the victims of illusion.' [26]

  This may indeed have been a factor which contributed to his change of attitude, but only a superficial one, like his childish boastings and showmanship. The obsession with the secret of life had bitten into deeper strata, where opposites cease to be opposites, the law of contradiction no longer applies, and a plus and minus sign become interchangeable. Among his unpublished writings there is a passage written when he was approaching sixty:

  I have been looking for spontaneous generation for twenty years without discovering it. No, I do not judge it impossible. But what allows you to make it the origin of life? You place matter before life and you decide that matter has existed for all eternity. How do you know that the incessant progress of science will not compel scientists . . . to consider that life has existed during eternity, and not matter? You pass from matter to life because your intelligence of today . . . cannot conceive things otherwise. How do you know that in ten thousand years one will not consider it more likely that matter has emerged from life . . . ? [26a]

  At the age of forty-six Pasteur suffered a stroke which left his left arm and leg permanently paralysed. Yet his greatest work was done during the following two decades, when he was an invalid and had to use his assistants' hands to carry out his experiments. In old age he would often browse in his earlier publications. 'Turning the pages of his writings, he would marvel at the lands that he had revealed by dispelling the fogs of ignorance and by overcoming stubbornness. He would live again his exciting voyages, as he told Loir in a dreamy voice: "How beautiful, how beautiful! And to think I did it all. I had forgotten it."' [27]

  2. INNOCENCE AND EXPERIENCE

  I have been discussing the motivational drive of scientists. Can we make any generalizations regarding their intellectual characteristics -- in addition to those described earlier on (Chapters V - X)?

  Precociousness

  In the first place, such data as we possess confirm the popular belief that scientists reach their peak of creativity at an earlier age than artists. Most scientists made their basic discoveries when they were under forty -- exceptions like Faraday or Pasteur always granted. In a valuable study on Nobel Prize winners by L. Moulin [28] we find the avenge age at which a person is awarded the prize to be fifty-one; but for physicists it is forty-five. (The award, of course, often lags by a number of years behind the discovery.) It is interesting to note that the stupendous increase, over the last half-century, in the volume of knowledge to be mastered had no significant influence on the age at which the award is received: between 1901 and 1930 the average, for physicists, was forty-five years, between 1931 and 1960, forty-six years. The average for chemists was fifty years for the first, fifty-one for the second period; for the award-winner in medicine it fell from fifty-five in the first, to fifty-three in the second period -- presumably as an effect of increasing team-work. The figures also indicate an age-gradient from the more 'theoretical' to the more 'empirical' or 'applied' sciences. This is 'in keeping with the well-known fact of the precociousness of mathematicians -- the most 'theoretical' among scientists (unfortunately there is no Nobel Prize for mathematics).

  A related phenomenon is the dazzling multitude of infant prodigies among scientists: for every Mozart there are about three Pascals, Maxwells, Edisons. To quote only a few examples: the greatest Renaissance astronomer before Copernicus, Johann Mueller from Koenigsberg, called Regiomontanus (1436-1476), published at the age of twelve the best astronomical yearbook for 1448; was asked at fifteen by the Emperor Frederick III to cast a horoscope for the imperial bride; went to the University of Leipzig when he was eleven, and at seventeen enjoyed European fame; he died at forty. Pascal had laid the foundations for the modern treatment of conic sections before he was sixteen. Jeremiah Horrocks (1619-1641) applied Kepler's laws to the orbit of the moon and made other fundamental contributions to astronomy before his death at the age of twenty-one. Evariste Galois (1811-1832), one of the most outstanding geniuses in the history of mathematics, was killed in a duel at the age of twenty-one (cf. p. 111). The notes which he left behind amount to no more than sixty pages of his 'collected works'; but those sixty pages inaugurated a new epoch in the theory of equations, and 'contain more mathematics than is to be found in some libraries crammed with books bearing mathematical titles'. [29] Clerk Maxwell, who lived to forty-eight, had his first mathematical paper read before the Royal Society at the age of fifteen; in the discussion, the geometrical construction which was the subject of the paper was described as superior to Newton's and Descartes' discussion of the same problem.

  In contrast to this streak of precocity, however, is the fact that the majority of geniuses seem to have done rather badly in the normal school curriculum -- often including the very subject on which later on they were to leave their mark. 'In his student days Einstein had been a lazy dog,' his erstwhile teacher Minkovsky remarked: 'He never bothered about mathematics at all.' [30]

  Scepticism and Credulity

  But the paradox is not too difficult to resolve. I have emphasized before (Book One, X) that the scientific genius is a curious mixture of scepticism and credulity. At school he is frequently bored by and cynical about orthodox doctrines which unimaginative and tradition-bound masters try to cram into his head. To quote Einstein once more: 'Physics too [as taught in the classroom] were split into special fields each of which could engulf a short life's work without ever satisfying the hunger for deeper knowledge. For the examinations one had to stuff oneself with all this rubbish, whether one wanted to or not. This compulsion had such a terrifying effect on me that after my finals the consideration of any scientific problems was distasteful to me for a whole year.' [31]

  The student's matrices of thought are still fluid -- later on, when they have hardened, he will only be able to recapture his erstwhile innocence at inspired moments. Under propitious conditions, inexperience can be an asset: it entices the novice into asking questions which nobody has asked before, into seeing a problem where nobody saw one before. That is what young Maxwell probably did when be was lying on the grass before his father's house, looking at the s
ky and wondering. That is what Einstein did when at the age of sixteen he indulged in the fantasy of travelling at the speed of light; and what Edison did when 'his demands for explanations of what seemed obvious to his elders created the belief that he was less than normally intelligent'.

  Einstein has compared the intellectual appetite of youth 'to the voraciousness of a healthy beast of prey'. When the child has learned that everything has a name, it develops a 'naming mania'. When it has learned that all events have 'becauses' it develops the mania of asking 'Why? -- Why? -- Why?' A fool says the Bible, can ask more questions in a minute than a sage can answer in a week. But sages are scarce, and the child soon learns to accept answers which are not real explanations but conventional formulae or evasions, and to be content with them; the keen edge of its appetite for knowledge has become blunted. Only geniuses preserve their infantile voracity for 'becauses' -- and the naïve hope that there are real answers to every question. 'Why is the moon round? Why does the apple fall from the tree? Why are there five planets instead of twenty, and why do they move as they do? Why does milk go sour? Why could the dairymaid not get the pox? Why is the colour of a sailor's blood in the tropics a brighter red than in Hamburg? Why did the dead frog's legs twitch?' One of the hallmarks of genius is that he has never lost the habit of asking foolish questions like these -- each of which led to a momentous discovery.

  Abstraction and Practicality

  The reasons for this peculiarity have already been discussed: scepticism towards the conventional answers, the refusal to take anything for granted, the freshness of vision of the unblinkered mind. Taken together, these create an acuity of perception, a gift for seeing the banal objects of everyday experience in a sharp individual light -- as painters and poets do, each in his own way; to observe details and notice trivia which escape the attention of others. This leads us to a second pair of complementary qualities (the first was scepticism paired with credulity) in the scientist's make-up: the coexistence of abstract and concrete moulds of thought, the faculty of combining high flights of theory with a keen sense of the practical and down-to-earth -- a knack for picking up trivial clues. Pythagoras in search of the harmony of the spheres enters the blacksmith's workshop; Archimedes gets his solution from observing a smudge in his bath-tub; Galileo exhorts his friends to learn natural philosophy from the craftsmen in the arsenals of Venice; Kepler notices that the slit in his roof which let the rain through can be used as the aperture of a camera obscura to observe the sun; Claude Bernard takes the temperature of a rabbit's denervated ear and is led to the discovery that blood-vessels are controlled by nerves.

  Throughout history, genius displays these complementary qualities of making lofty generalizations based on humble clues. 'It is very necessary', wrote Maxwell, 'that those who are trying to learn from books the facts of physical science should be enabled to recognize these facts when they meet with them out-of-doors. Science appears to us with a very different aspect after we have found out . . . that we may find illustrations of the highest doctrines of science in games and gymnastics, in travelling by land and by water, in storms of the air and of the sea. This habit of recognizing principles amid the endless variety of their action . . . tends to rescue our scientific ideas from that vague condition in which we too often leave them buried among the other products of a lazy credulity.' [32]

  To have one's head in the clouds does not prevent one from having one's feet firmly on the ground. The scientist, as the artist, must live on several planes at once -- look at eternity through the window of time. All great geniuses of science were endowed with this particular dualism of their faculties: a head for generalizations and an eye for minute particulars; searching for the secret of life in the beet-juice of M. Bigo; tilting at windmills without falling off the horse.

  Multiple Potentials

  I must mention one more characteristic property shared, apparently, by most great scientists: one may call it the 'multiple potential'. It helps to explain the paradox of the apparently haphazard way in which scientists are often launched on their career or on a particular line of research.

  Kepler was designated to become a theologian when he was unexpectedly offered the job of a mathematician at a provincial school. Halley was a botanist when the accident of dropping his friend's precious spar crystal made him change to crystallography, and become a pioneer in that field. Darwin, preparing to become a country curate, had the good luck of being invited to join the expedition of the Beagle -- without that chance it is extremely doubtful whether he would have written The Origin of Species. The direction of all of Pasteur's later researches was determined by his first discoveries about the optical activity of paratartaric add: he himself said that he had become 'enchained to the inescapable logic' by which one discovery gave birth to the next. As for Alexander Fleming, the coincidences which determined his initial choice of career are about as fantastic as the actual circumstances of his discovery. He had adopted the medical profession because his brother was a doctor; he had gone to St. Mary's where he was to spend the whole of his life, because he had played against their water-polo team; and he chose bacteriology as his branch of research because Freeman, the assistant of Almroth Wright, wanted to keep Fleming, who was an excellent shot, in St. Mary's rifle club.

  The answer to the paradox is, apparently, that given the type of mind which Fleming had, he would in all likelihood have left his mark on any other branch of experimental science into which the wind of chance had blown him. In Pasteur's case, for instance, Dubos has convincingly shown that 'the inescapable logic' which his researches followed was by no means inescapable; for in Pasteur's notebooks and casual remarks there are projects and germs of discoveries which, had he only had the time to follow them up, or had the wind of circumstance blown from a different direction, would have brought an equally fertile harvest.

  True genius, according to Dr. Johnson, 'is a mind of large general powers, accidentally determined to some particular direction, ready for all things, but chosen by circumstances for one'. Dubos, after quoting the Doctor, fully concurs with his opinion: 'It is often by a trivial, even an accidental decision, that we direct our activities into a certain channel, and thus determine which of the potential expressions of our individuality become manifest. Usually we know nothing of the ultimate orientation or of the outlet towards which we travel, and the stream sweeps us to a formula of life from which there is no returning. Every decision is like a murder, and our march forward is over the stillborn bodies of all our possible selves that will never be.' [33]

  This moving confession of a great scientist seems to be based on the assumption that creativity is a kind of convertible energy which can be applied to various forms of activity -- as the pressure of steam can be converted into electricity or motion. Stated in this extreme form, it is certainly an exaggeration: you cannot convert the creative energy of a painter into the composition of an opera. But it is nevertheless true that the particular type of intuition which makes the scientific genius can be focussed on problems as wide apart as colour-theory and celestial mechanics in Newton's case, or electro-magnetism and the theory of gases in Maxwell's -- with equally striking results. The versatility, the quicksilvery mobility of minds like Archimedes', Galileo's, Descartes', Franklin's, Faraday's, or Edison's is truly phenomenal; they seemed to walk through life charged with static electricity, so that whatever object they touched, they drew a spark. One-idea men, such as Copernicus or Darwin, seem to be the exceptions among the truly great, and multi-potentiality the rule. The ominous trend towards over-specialization, its dangers to the creative mind, and the educational and administrative reforms needed to remedy it, are outside the scope of this book.

  NOTE

  To p. 677. The Artistarchian system and the motion of the earth had been discussed or taught by Copernicus's forerunners, the astronomers Peurbach and Regiomontanus, by his teachers Brujewski and Novara, and by his colleagues at the University of Bologna, Calcagnini, Ziegler, etc. (cf. The S
leepwalkers, pp. 205-10).

  REFERENCES

  BOOK ONE The Art of Discovery and the Discoveries of Art PREFACE 1. The Sleepwalkers (1959). 2. The Lotus and the Robot (1960). PART ONE THE JESTER I. THE LOGIC OF LAUGHTER 1. Sully, J. (1902). 2. Duchenne de Boulogne (1862). 3. Ribot, T. A. (1896). 4. Quoted in the 'This England' column of the New Statesman and Nation, January 1946. 5. December 31, 1946. 6. Polànyi (1958), p. 50. 7. Bartlett (1958). 8. Bergson (1916), p. 59. 9. Lorenz, K. L. in Whyte, L. L. ed. (1951), pp. 176-8. 10. Santillana ed. (1953), p. 469. 11. Br. J. Psychology (1962), 53, 3, p. 229. II. LAUGHTER AND EMOTION 1. Gregory, J. C. (1924). 2. Quoted by Gregory, op. cit. 3. Foss, B. in the New Scientist, 6.7.1961. 4. Bain, A. (1868). 5. Bergson (1916). 6. McDougall, W. (1920). 7. Freud, Gesammelte Werke, VI (1940). 8. Freud, op. cit. 9. The Guardian, 5.9.1962. 10. See Ref. 3. 11. Bergson, op. cit. 12. Huxley, Aldous, in Control of the Mind, Farber, S. M. and Wilson, H. L. ed. (1961). 13. Auden, W. H. (1944). III. VARIETIES OF HUMOUR 1. Love's Labour's Lost, V. ii. 2. Sawyer, W. W. (1955), p. 143. 3. Gregory, op. cit. IV. FROM HUMOUR TO DISCOVERY 1. Santillana (1955), p. 124. PART TWO THE SAGE V. MOMENTS OF TRUTH 1. Köhler, W. (1957), p. 35. 2. Ibid., pp. 93-4. 3. Ibid., p. 94. 4. Ibid., p. 97. 5. Merton, R. K. (1961). 6. Polànyi (1958), p. 11. 7. Hadamard (1949), p. 119. 8. Ibid, p. 120. 9. Dubos (1960), p. 117. 9a. Ibid, p. 336. 10. Quoted in The Creative Process, Ghiselin, ed. (1952). 11. Hadamard, op. cit., p. 8. 12. de Launay, L. (1925). 13. Montmasson (1931), p. 77. 14, Polya, G. (1954), p. 76. 15. Findlay A. (1948), pp. 36-8. VI. THREE ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Histoire de l'Invention de l'Imprimerie par les Monuments, ed. Höfer, Paris 1840. 2. Mysterium Cosmographicum, Preface. 3. Ibid. 4. Opera Omnia, Vol. XIII, pp. 33 ff. 5. Ibid., Vol I, cap. 20. 6. Ibid., Notes 2 and 3. 7. Astronomia Nova, II, cap. 18. 8. Ibid., cap 44. 9. Op. Omnia, Vol. XV, pp. 134 seq. 10. Letter of 5.9.1857. 11. Footnote to the Historical Introduction to The Origin of Species. 12. Notebooks, quoted by Himmelfarb, G. (1959), p. 153. 13. Life and Letters, II, p. 215. 14. To Lyell; ibid., II, p. 241. 15. To Fawcett, More Letters, I, 195. 16. Ibid., I, 36. 17. Origin, 6th ed., p. 2. 18. Ibid., p. 3. 19. Lamarck (1914), pp. 109-10. 20. Nordenskiöld, History of Biology, p. 42, quoted by Himmelfarb, op. cit., p. 153. 21. British Medical Journal, 4.8.1956. 22. Himmelfarb. op. cit., p. 156. 23. Origin, 6th ed., p. 3. 24. Himmelfarb, op. cit., p. 234. 25. My Life, I, p. 359. 26. Ibid., I, pp. 232, 362. 27. Ibid., I, pp. 362 ff. 28. Himmelfarb, op. cit., p. 239. 29. Ibid., p. 238. 30. Loc. cit. 31. Ibid., p. 331. VII. THINKING ASIDE 1. Whyte, L. L. (1962), p. 25. 2. Ibid., p. 63. 3. Ibid., pp. 88-9. 4. Ibid., p. 90. 5. Ibid., p. 92. 6. Ibid., p. 93. 7. Ibid., p. 95. 8. Ibid., p. 107. 9. Ibid., p. 108. 10. Ibid., pp. 119-20. 11. Ibid., pp. 124-5. 12. Ibid., pp. 150-1. 13. Ibid., p. 104. I4. Ibid., p. 147. 15. Ibid., p. 154. 16. Ibid., p. 154. 17. Ibid., p. 152. 18. Ibid., pp. 160-1. 19. Herrigel (1959), 3rd ed., pp. 57-8. 20. Suzuki, D. T. (1959), p. 94. 21. Principles of Psychology (1890), Vol. I, p. 255. 22. Inquiries into Human Faculty, 1883. 23. Findlay, A., op. cit., p. 42. 24. Kendall, J. (1955), p. 138. 25. Crowther, J. G. (1940), I, p. 135. 26. Hadamard, op. cit., pp. 142-3. 27. Ibid., p. 85. 28. Quoted by Hadamard, p. 94. 29. Roman Jakobson, quoted by Hadamard, p. 97. 30. Seelig (1954), p. 71. 31. Ibid. 32. Sidney Hook, 'Consciousness in Japan', Commentary, New York, Jan. 1959. 33. Whyte, L. L. (1962), p. 41. 34. Tractatus, Prop. 4121. VIII. UNDERGROUND GAMES 1. Civilization and its Discontents (1930). 2. Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), p. 53. 3. Loc. cit. 4. Scientific American, June 1961. In fact the problem originates with Carl Duncker. 5. The Integration of Personality (1940), p. 16. 6. Crowther, J. G. (1940) p. 325. 7. Loc. cit. 8. On Psychic Research, ed. Gardner Murphy and Bellon, R. O. (1961). 9. Über den Gegensinn der Urworte, Ges. Werke VIII, p. 216. 10. Die Verneinung, G. W. XIV, p. 11 11. Montmasson (1931), p. 137. 12. Enc. Brit., 13th ed., article on Photography. 13. Beveridge (1950), p. 69. 14. Sachs, H. (1946), p. 98. 15. Bronowski (1961) p. 31. 16. Crowther (1937), p. 77. 17. Ibid., p. 69. 18. Loewi, O. (1960). 19. Loc. cit. IX. THE SPARK AND THE FLAME 1. Quoted by Ghiselin, op. cit. 2. Beveridge, op. cit., p. 5. 3. Ibid. 4. Harmonice Mundi, Introduction to Book V. 5. Quoted by Beveridge, op. cit., p. 105. 6. Astronomia Nova, IV. cap. 58. 7. The Sleepwalkers (1959). 8. Jones, E. (1953), Vol. I, p. 55. 9. Ibid., p. 103. 10. Ibid., p. 101. 11. Ibid., p. 104. 12. Ibid., p. 97. 13. Lorimer (1929), p. 91. 14. Markey (1928), p. 42. 15. The Story of My Life (1902). X. THE EVOLUTION OF IDEAS 1. Whitehead (1953). 2. The Sleepwalkers, pp. 515-16. 3. Pyke, M. (1961), p. 215. 4. Pledge, H. T. (1939), p. 100. 5. Burnet, J. (1908), p. 29. 5a. Pope's Epitaph for Newton, and Hilaire Belloc's Answer to it. 6. Bartlett (1958), pp. 98, 122, 134, 136-7. 7. (1948), p. 167. 8. The Sleepwalkers, p. 70. 9. Taton, R. (1957), pp. 134-5. 10. Butterfield (1949), pp. 1-2. 10a. The Sleepwalkers. 11. Butterfield, p. 7. 12. Heath, Th. L. (1932), p. 170. 13. For a critical account of the Galileo conflict see The Sleepwalkers. 14. Polànyi (1958), pp. 156-8. 15. Dubos (1950), p. 121. 16. Polànyni, op. cit., p. 168. 17. Ibid., pp. 12-13. 17a. Scientific American, May 1963. 18. Popper (1959), p. 280. 19, Dubos (1960), pp. 133-5. 20. Voyage to Laputa. XI. SCIENCE AND EMOTION 1. Quoted by Kretschmer (1931), p. 136. 2. Beveridge, op. cit., p. 75. 3. Jones, E. (1953), I, p. 348. 4. Quoted by Farrington, B. (1953), pp. 130-1. 5. Quoted by Seelig, op. cit., p. 45. 6. Harmonice Mundi, Lib. IV, cap I. 7. Whyte, L. L. (1962), p. 66. 8. Op. cit., p. 105. 9. Seelig, op. cit., p. 44. 10. Planète. Paris, No. 1, 1961. PART THREE THE ARTIST A. The Participatory Emotions XII. THE LOGIC OF THE MOIST EYE 1. Hilgard (1957), pp. 129 f. 2. Cf. Gellhorn, E. (1943 and 1957). 3. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 4. Cf. e.g. Valentine (1946), and Clarke, Hunt, and Hunt (1947). 5. Cf. Mutch, R. T. (1944). 6. Montagu, A., Science, Vol. 130, p. 1572. 7. Kling, C. (1933). XIII. PARTNESS AND WHOLENESS 1. Penfield (1959), p. 249. XIV. ON ISLANDS AND WATERWAYS 1. Piaget (1930). 2. Civilization and its Discontents, p. 13 ff. 3. Lévy-Bruhl (1923 and 1926). 4. Cf. Polànyi, op. cit., p. 55. B. Verbal Creation XV. ILLUSION 1. Compressed from The Observer, London, 2.12.1962. 2. Lévy-Bruhl (1926), p. 76. 3. Ibid., p. 385. 4. Fitzmaurice Kelly, J., article on 'Literature' in Enc. Brit., 13th ed. XVI. RHYTHM AND RHYME 1. (1927), p. 139. 2. Le Côté de Guermantes. 3. A.R.N.M.D. (1940), Vol. XX, p. 732. 4. The Name and Nature of Poetr. 5. Quoted from Ghiselin, ed. (1952). XVII. IMAGE 1. Sachs, H. (1946). 2. (1925), p. 270 ff. 3. Kretschmer (1934). XVIII. INFOLDING 1. What is Art? 2. Richards, I. A. (1924). 3. Cohen, J. (1958). XIX. CHARACTER AND PLOT 1. Memento Mori. 2. Brandt, G. W., in Cassell's Enc. of Literature (1953), Vol. I, p. 422. 3. (1930), pp. 25 seq. XX. THE BELLY OF THE WHALE 1. See, for instance, Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious (1916); M. Bodkin, Archetypal Patterns in Poetry (1934); Toynbee, A Study of History (1947). 2. Jung (1928), p. 395. 3. Op. cit. C. Visual Creation XXI. MOTIF AND MEDIUM 1. Cf. Newton, E. (1941). 2. Listowel (1933), p. 217. 3. Beauty and Ugliness (1912). 4. Jaensch (1930). 5. Gris, Juan, Horizon, August, 1946. 6. Picasso in a conversation with the editor of Cahiers d'Art (1935), quoted by Goldwater and Treves (1945). 7. Wollberg, L. R. (1945). 8. Quoted by Reid, L. (1931). 9. Quoted by Gombrich (1962B), p. 159. 10. A New Method of Assisting the Invention in Drawing Original Compositions of Landscape (1765). 11. Gombrich (1962B), p. 123. 12. Ibid., p. 122. 13. Dürer und die italienische Antike (1905). 14. Gombrich (1962B), p. 75. 15. Ibid., p. 12. 16. Ibid., pp. 61 ff. 17. Ibid., p. 145. 18. Ibid., p. 12. 19. Ibid., p. 10. XXII. IMAGE AND EMOTION 1. Kepes, G. (1956), p. 102. 2. Ibid., pp. 286-7. XXIII. ART AND PROGRESS 1. (1949), p. 97. 2. Quoted by Gombrich (1962B), p. 246. 3. (1949), p. 105. 4. Gombrich (1962B), p. 20. 5. Ibid., p. 169. 6. Ibid., pp. 174-5. XXIV. CONFUSION AND STERILITY 1. Some lengthy passages in this chapter are lifted without acknowledgements from my essay on 'The Anatomy of Snobbery' in The Trail of the Dinosaur (1954). 2. Time, January 26, 1962. 3. See Note 1. 4. Quoted from 'This England', The New Statesman and Nation, August 14, 1954. BOOK TWO Habit and Originality INTRODUCTION 1. Jeffress, A., ed. (1951), p. 113. I. PRE-NATAL SKILLS 1. Woodger (1929), p. 327. 2. Hyden (1960), p. 307. 2A. Hyden (1962). 3. Bertalanffy (1952), p. 134. 4. Schrödinger (1944), p. 71. 5. Cf
. e.g. Buttin, G. 1962. 6. Fischberg, M. and Blackler, A. W. (1961). 7. Willier, Weiss, and Hamburger (1955), p. 338. 8. Hamburger (1955A), p. 67. 9. Waddington (1932), quoted from Polànyi (1958), p. 356. 10. Weiss (1939), p. 290. 11. Hamburger (1955B), p. 978. 12. Brachet (1955), pp. 389 ff. 13. Hamburger, loc. cit. 14. Bertalanffy (1952), p. 47. II. THE UBIQUITOUS HIERARCHY 1. e.g. Coghill (1929), Carmichael, L. (1954). 2. Needham,J. (1932). 3. Spencer H. (1870-2). 4. Heidenhain (1923). 5. Jeffress, A., ed. (1951), pp. 140 ff. 6, Pribram (1960), p. 6. 7. Hyashi, T. (1961), pp. 184 seq. 8. Pribram (1960), p. 8. 9. Holst, V. (1937, 1948). 10. Petermann (1932), p. 124. 11. Quoted from Petermann, op. cit., pp. 127 ff. 12. Ibid., p. 130. 13. Ibid., pp. 131 f. 14. Ibid., p. 132. 15. Quoted by Miller et al. (1960), p. 92. 16. Jeffress, op. cit., p. 141. 17, Quoted from Tinbergen (1951), p. 129. III. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM AND REGENERATIVE POTENTIAL 1. Pribram (1960), p. 4. 2. Tinbergen (1951), p. 126. 3. Thorpe (1956), pp. 28-30. 4. Needham, A. E. (1961). 5. Child, C. M. (1924). IV. 'RECULER POUR MIEUX SAUTER' 1. Child, C. M. (1924), p. 151. 2. Ibid., p. 150. 3. Smithers (1960), p. 108. 4. Ibid., pp. 106-7. 5. Lashley (1960), p. 239. 6. Lashley (1929). 7. Bertalanffy, op. cit., p. 114. 8. Loc. cit. 9. Kretschmer (1931), p. 138. 10. Miller et al, op. cit., p. 199. 11. Polànyi (1958), p. 400. 12. Needham, A. E. 1961. V. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION 1. Pribram (1960). VI. CODES OF INSTINCT BEHAVIOUR 1. Tinbergen (1951), pp. 189, 195. 2. e.g. Spurway and Haldane (1953), quoted by Thorpe (1956). 3. Tinbergen (1953), p. 55. 4. Tinbergen (1951), p. 9. 5. Sir Julian Huxley. 6. Kuo, Z. Y. (1932). 7. Lehrman, D. S. (1961). 8. Beach, F. A. (1961). 9. Tinbergen (1951), p. 142. 10. Hilgard (1958), p. 3. 11. Thorpe (1956), p. 133. 12. Ibid., p. 18. 13. Ibid., p. 28. The term 'innate releasing mechanism' is a translation by Tinbergen of the German das angeborene, auslösende Schema (von Uexhüll-Lorenz). 14. Tinbergen (1951), p. 103. 15. Loc. cit. 16. Tinbergen (1953), p. 9. 17. For a brief survey see 'The Concept of "Ritualization"' by A. D. Blest in Current Problems in Animal Behaviour, ed. Thorpe and Zangwill (1961). 18. Thorpe (1956), p. 132. 19. Ibid., p. 31. 20. Woodworth (1918). 21. Tinbergen (1951), pp. 105-6. 22. Ibid., p. 110. 23. Ibid., pp. 104-5. 24. Thorpe (1956), p. 41. 25. Ibid. p. 42. 26. Ibid., p. 19. 27. Loc. cit. 28. Thorpe (1956), p. 26. 29. Ibid., p. 262. 30. Hingston (1917), quoted by Thorpe (1956), p. 38. 31. Hingston, op. cit., quoted by Thorpe (1956), p. 39. 32. Lindauer, M. (1952). 33. Tinbergen (1953), p. 102. 34. Ibid., p. 116. VII. IMPRINTING AND IMITATION 1. Hilgard (1957), p. 125. 2. Heinroth, O. (1938). 3. Thorpe (1956), p. 375. 4. Thorpe (1956), p. 356. 5. Lashley (1913). 6. McDougall (1936). 7. Thorpe (1956), p. 375. 8. Ibid., p. 374. 9. Ibid., p. 356. VIII. MOTIVATION 1. Mowrer, O. H. (1952). 2. Freud (1920), pp. 3-5. 3. Hilgard (1958), p. 428. 4. Hebb (1949), pp. 178-80. 5. Cf. i.a., Zener (1957); Loucks (1935, 1938); Hovland (1937); Hilgard and Marquis (1940); and for a concise summary Hebb (1949), pp. 174-6. 6. For a review of the literature, cf. e.g. Pribram (1960). 7. Miller et al., op. cit., p. 30. 8. Pribram (1960), p. 3. 9. Skinner (1938), p. 9. 10. Ibid., pp. 40. 11. Miller et al., op. cit., p. 22. 12. Hilgard (1958), p. 105. 13. Humphreys, L. G. (1939). 14. Hull (1952), p. 350. 15, Hilgard (1958), p. 177. 16. Berlyne, D. E. (1960), p. 225. 17. Allport, G. W. (1957). 18. Goldstein, K. (1939). 19. Cf. e.g., Jencks B. and Potter, P. B., Journal of Psychology, Vol. 49, p. 139. 20. Nissen, H. W. (1954). 21. Berlyne, op. cit., p. 115. 22. Ibid., p. 116. 23. Ibid., p. 127. 24. Ibid., p. 117. 25. Ibid., p. 117. 26. Ibid., p. 119. 27. Ibid., pp. 133-4. 28. Lorenz (1956). 29. Compressed from The Descent of Man (1913 ed.), pp. 108-10; and The Expression of the Emotions (1872), p. 43. 30. Berlin, 1917; London and New York 1925. 31. Berlyne, op. cit., p. 148. 32. Harlow et al. (1950). 33. Harlow (1953), p. 25. 34. Woodworth (1947), p. 123. 35. Berlyne, op. cit., p. 170. 36. Loc. cit. 37. Pavlov (1927). 38. Darchen, R. (1952, 1954, and 1957), quoted by Berlyne, op. cit., p. 104. 39. Thacker, L. A. (1950). 40. Thorpe (1956), p. 9. 41. Ibid., p. 12. 42, Craik, K.J.W. (1943), p. 61. 43. Allport, G. W. (1955), p. 67. IX. PLAYING AND PRETENDING 1. Thorpe (1956). 2. Berlyne, op. cit., p. 5. 3. Thorpe (1956), p. 87. 4, Loc. cit. 5. Ibid. p. 355. X. PERCEPTION AND MEMORY 1. Galambos (1956). Cf. also 269. 2. Moray, N., The Listener, 19.4. 1962. 3. e.g. Hilgard (1958), p. 442 seq. 4. Ittelson, W. H. (1952), quoted from Polànyi (1958), p. 96. 5. Wever, E. G. (1949). 6. Osgood (1960), p. 111. 7. Pringle, J.W.S. (1951). 8. Hyden (1960, 1962). 9. Whitfield (1949), p. 367. 10. Miller et al., op. cit., pp. 134 ff. 10A. Bartlett (1961), cap. V. 11. See e.g. Hebb (1949), cap. 2. I2. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Exner (1891), quoted by Thorpe (1956), p. 129. I6. See, for instance, Miles's (1931) fascinating kinephantoscope. 17. Dubos, p. 94. 18. Babbage (1830), quoted by Hanson (1961), p. 184. 19. Barlow (1959), pp. 552 seq. 20. Quoted by Koffka (1935), p. 143. 21. Woodworth (1938), p. 561. 22. Cf. Osgood (1960), p. 641, Kluever, H. (1955) and Jaensch, E. R. (1930). 23. Kluever, op. cit. and Jaensch, op. cit. 24. Kluever, op. cit. 25. Pierre, T. H. (1955). 26. Kluever, op. cit. 27. Jaensch, op. cit. 28. Ibid., p. 97. 29. Semon, R. (1921), p. 149. 30. Woodworth (1938), p. 42. 31. Head (1926), p. 232. 32. Quoted by Penfield (1959), p. 226. 33. Fry, D. B. and Denes, P., in Mechanization of Thought Processes (1959), p. 378. 34. Paget (1930). 35. Fry and Denes, op. cit., p. 381. 36. Paget, op. cit. 37. Ladefoged, P., in Mechanization of Thought Processes (1959), p. 407. 38. Ibid., p. 411. See also Mackay, D. M. and Sutherland, N. S., ibid., pp. 607-9. 39. Drever, J., 2nd. in Annual Review of Psychology (1960), p. 131. 40. Ibid., pp. 153-4. 41. Thorpe (1956), p. 119. 42. Loc. cit. 43. Thorpe (1956), p. 411. 44. Ibid., p. 119. 45. Quoted by Wilenski, R. H. (1940), p. 202. 46. cf. Ladefoged, P., in Mechanization of Thought Processes (1959), p. 402. 47. Bartlett (1961), p. 200. 48. Ibid, p. 213. 49. Time, March 2, 1962. XI. MOTOR SKILLS 1. Psychological Review, 1899, 6, pp. 345-75. 2. Woodworth (1938), p. 159. 3. Book, W. F. (1908). 4. Woodworth (1938), p. 45. 5. New Scientist, March 1, 1962. 6. Miller et al. (1960), p. 86. 7. Lashley in the Hixon Symposium, p. 123. 8. Ruch, T. C. (1951), p. 205. XII. THE PITFALLS OF LEARNING THEORY 1. (1927), pp. 32-3. 2. Skinner, quoted by Hilgard (1958), p. 117. 3. Ibid., p. 106. 4. [bid., p. 152. 5. Köhler: The Mentality of Apes, Gestalt Psychology. Koffka: Principles of Gestalt Psychology, The Growth of the Mind. 6. Watson (1928), pp. 198 ff. 7. Watson (1924), p. 281. 8, Watson (1928), p. 199. 9. Loc. cit. 10. Hilgard (1958), p. 121. 11. Guthrie (1935), p. 25. 12. Skinner (1953a), quoted by Hilgard (1958), p. 115. 13. Hull (1945), p. 56. 14. Hilgard (1958), p. 152. 15. Osgood (1953), p. 655. 16. Hebb (1949), p. 59. 17. Hilgard (1958), pp. 8 ff. 18. Ibid, p. 335. 19. Polànyi (1958), p. 71. 20. Craik (1943), p. 121. 21. Hebb (1949), p. 127. 22. Thorpe (1956), pp. 96, 100, 106. 23. Ibid., pp. 229, 231. 24. Ibid., pp. 229, 231, 232, 235. 25. Ibid., p. 227. 26. Russell (1927), p. 41. 27. Osgood (1953), p. 451. 28. Rosenthal, R., and Fode, K. L., 'The Effect of Experimenter Bias on the Performance of the Albino Rat' in Behavioral Science, Vol. VIII, 3, July 1963. 29. Earl Ubell in the New York Herald Tribune, January 1960. 30. Thorndike (1913-14), p. 134. 31. Osgood, op. cit., p. 604. 32. Hilgard (1958), p. 15. 32a. Tolman (1937), p. 11. 33. Hilgard (1958), p. 65. 34. Krechevsky (1932). 35. Ibid. 36. Hilgard (1958), p. 470. 37. Osgood, op. cit., p. 604. XIII. THE PITFALLS OF GESTALT 1, Köhler (1957), p. 113. 2. Ibid., p. 113 n. 3. Osgood (1960), p. 637. 4. Köhler (1957), p. 164. 5. Yerkes (1943), p. 156. 6. Osgood, op. cit., p. 611. 7. Loc. cit. 8. Köhler (1957), p. 43. 9. Ibid, p. 44. 10. Ibid., cap VII. 11. Ibid., p. 44. 12. Ibid., p. 45. 13,.Ibid., p. 167. 14. Yerkes (1943). 15. Birch H. G., in J. Comp. Psychol., 1945, p. 382. 16. Thompson, W. R. and Heron, W. (1954), quoted by Hebb (1958), p. 219. 17. Köhler (1957), p. 164. 18. Ibid., p. 167. 19. Köhler (1930), p. 277. 20. Ibid., pp. 272 seq. 21. Craik (1943), pp. 52. 22. Cf. e.g. Köhler (1957), p. 27. 23. Piaget (1954), p. 359. 24. Craik, op. cit., p. 1. 25. Russell (1927), pp. 279-80. 26. Ibid, p. 83. 27. Köhler (1930), p. 225. 28. Petermann (1932). 29. Hixon Symposium, p. 69. 30. Polànyi (1958), p. 341. 31. Koffka (1935), p. 570. 32. Köhler (1930), p. 215. 33. Hebb (1949), p. 134. 34. Ibid., p. 164. 35. Hebb (1958), pp. 204-5. 36. Hilgard (1958), pp. 475-6, 477-8. XIV. LEARNING TO SPEAK 1. James (1890), Vol. I, p. 253. 2. Ach quoted by Humphrey,
G. (1951), p. 260. 3. Osgood, op. cit., p. 686. 4. Piaget (1954), p. 359. 5. Hilgard (1957), p. 315. 6. Piaget (1954). 7. Ibid., p. 92. 8. Penfield and Roberts (1959), pp. 228-9. 9. Quoted by Woodworth (1938), p. 148. 10. Thorpe, op. cit., p. 119. 11. Head (1926), pp. 111, 112. 12. Woodworth (1938), p. 809. 13. Humphrey (1951), p. 252. 14. Penfield and Roberts (1959), p. 226. 15. Loc. cit. 16. Ibid., p. 228. 17. Chapter on Language and Thought. XV. LEARNING TO THINK 1. Russell (1927), p. 58. 2. Lorimer (1929), p. 95. 3. Cf. Book One, p. 322. 4. Lorimer (1929), p. 94. 5. Markey (1928), p. 71. 6. Ibid., p. 50. 7. Hebb (1949), p. 118. 8. Ibid., pp. 117 ff. 9. Quoted by Humphrey, op. cit., p. 25. 10. Osgood, op. cit., 689. 11. Cf. e.g. Hebb (1949), p. 176. 12. Lorimer, op. cit., pp. 103 ff. 13. Koffka (1930), p. 347. 14. Piaget (1930), p. 243. 15. Piaget (1928), p. 229. 16. Ibid., p. 227. 17. Lorimer (1929), pp. 124-6. 18. Craik, op. cit., p. 121. 19. See Lévy-Bruhl (1926), pp. 181 seq. 20. Ibid. 21. Dantzig (1930). 22. Herodotus, Historia, Bk. VII. 23. Dantzig, op. cit., pp. 9 ff. 24. Cf. e.g. Haas, W. S. (1956). XVI. SOME ASPECTS OP THINKING 1. Cf. Koestler (1960). 2. Cf. Hyden (1960, 1962). 3. Penfield and Roberts, op. cit., p. 233. XVII. ASSOCIATION 1. Osgood, op. cit. 2. Humphrey, op. cit., p. 1. 3. Quoted by Woodworth (1938), p. 370. 4. Quoted by Woodworth (1939) pp. 350 ff. 5. Woodworth (z939) pp. 352 ff. XVIII. HABIT AND ORIGINALITY 1. Quoted by Polya (1938), p. 164. 2. Polya (1948), p. 158. 3. Ibid., p. 58. 4. Loc. cit. 5. Osgood, op. cit., p. 633. APPENDIX I. ON LOADSTONES AND AMBER 1. De Magnette, Book V, cap. 12. 2. Ibid., VI, 4. 3. Cap 6. 4. Pledge (1939), p. 121. 5. Quoted from F. Sherwood Taylor (1949), p. 258. 6. Article on 'Electricity' in Enc. Brit. (1955 ed.) VIII, p. 189. 7. Crowther (1940), p. 348. APPENDIX II. SOME FEATURES OF GENIUS 1. The Elizabethan World Picture (1946). 2. Science and Imagination (1956). 3. Quoted by Farrington (1953), pp. 130-1. 4. Butterfleld (1949), p. 29. 5. Dreyer, J.L.E. Tycho Brahe (1890), p. 14. 6. Il Saggiatore. 7. Dialogue on the Great World Systems, p. 469. 8. Il Saggiatore, Opere, VI, p. 232. 9. Dialogue Concerning Two Sciences, p. 1. 10. Dialogue on the Great World Systems, pp. 68-9. 11. Drake Stillman (1957), pp. 256-8. 12. Harmonice Mundi, cap. 7. 13. Hoskin, M., 'The Mind of Newton', The Listener, 19.10.61. 14. Phillips, R. (1927). 15. Crowther, J. G. (1940), p. 129. 16. Ibid., p. 316. 17. Himmelfarb, G., op. cit., p. 26. 18. Ibid., pp. 314-17. 19. Ibid., p. 317. 20. Ibid., p. 119. 21. Ibid., pp. 307-8. 21A. Ibid. p. 357. 22. Origin of Species (1873), p. 429. 23. The Descent of Man (1913) ed., pp. 946-7. 24. Dubos (1950), p. 72. 25. Dubos (1960), p. 36. 26. Dubos (1950), p. 114. 26A. Ibid, p. 396 f. 27. Ibid, p. 87. 28. La Personne du Prix Nobel (in the press). 29. Enc. Brit., 13th ed. on Jalois. 30. 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(ed.), Personality and the Behaviour Disorders, Vol. 1, Ronald Press, Chap. 3, Mowrer, O. H., Dynamic theory of personality, 89, 1944. RIVIERE, Interntl. J. of Psychoanal. 17, 395-422 (Psychological development in infancy.) 1936. SULLIVAN, H. S., Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry, Tavistock Pbns., London, 15, 17, 89, 1953. SYMONDS, P. M., Dynamic Psychology, Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 48, 280, 1949. SYMONDS, P. M., The Ego and the Self, Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 13, 1951. D. Ontogenetics of Weeping AMES, L. B., 'Motor correlates of infant crying', J. Genet. Psychol., 59, 239-47, 1941. BAYLEY, N., 'A study of crying in infants etc.', J. Genet. Psychol., 40, 306-29, 1932. BORGQUIST, A., 'Crying', Am.J. of Psychol., 1906. CLARKE, HUNT and HUNT, J. Gen. Psychol. 17, 398-402 (Weeping and startle pattern.), 1937. GOODENOUGH, F. L., Anger in Young Children, 66-9, 244-9, 1931. GOODENOUGH, F. L., J. Abn. Soc. Psychol. 27, 328-33 (Weeping in blind and deaf children.), 1932. GOODENOUGH, F. L., Developmental Psychology (2nd ed.), Appleton Century. 201, 257; Individual differences, 273, 1945 KANNER, L., Child Psychiatry, Tanner, Illinois. 35, 599, 1960. LANDIS, C. and HUNT, W. A., The Startle Pattern, Farrar and Rhinehart, New York, 141, 1939. LANDRETH, C., 'Factors associated with crying in young children', Child Dev. 12, 81-97, 1941. MOWRER, O. H. and MOWRER, W. M., 'The meaning and measurement of crying', Child Study, 15, 104-7, 1938. MUNN, N. L., Evolution and Growth of Human Behaviour, Riverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 407 ff., 1955. ROSENZWEIG, S., 'Babies are taught to cry; a hypothesis', Men,. Hyg. New York, 38, 81-4, 1954 RUJA, H., 'The relation between neonate crying and length of labour', J. Genet. Psychol. 73, 53-5 (Test of Rankian birth cry hypothesis.), 1948. VALENTINE, C. W., Psychology of Early Childhood (3rd ed.), Methuen, London, 1946. Early Appearance, 86 ff.; Inhibition of, 117; Social, 293; Resentment of, 297; Sympathy, 298. E. Psychopathology and Weeping DAVISON, C. and KELLMAN, 'Pathological laughing and crying', Arch. Neurol. Psychiat.. 42, 595-633, 1939. GREENACRE, P., 'Pathological weeping', Psychoanal. Quart. 14, 62-75, 1945. GREENACRE, P., 'Urination and weeping', Am. J. Orthopsychiat. 15, 81-8, 1945. KELLEY, G. A., The Psychology of Personal Constructs, Vol. 2, Clinical Diagnosis and Psychotherapy, Norton and Co., New York, 896 ff., 1113 ff., 1955. LACOMBE, P., 'A special mechanism of pathological weeping', Psychoanal. Quart. 27, 248-51, 1958. F. Depth Psychological Formulations ABRAHAM, K., Selected Papers on Psychoanalysis, Hogarth Press, 483 (Weeping in women as unconscious wish to urinate like a man.), 1954 BREUER, J. and FREUD, S., Studies in Hysteria, Hogarth Interntl. Psychoanalytical Library No. 50, 162 ff., 163 fn. (Weeping and abreaction arrears.), 1956. FELDMAN, S. S., 'Crying at the happy ending', J. Am. Psychoanal. Ass. 4, 477-85, 1956. (See GREENACRE 1945, 2, in Section E above.) HEILBRUNN, G., 'On weeping', Psychoanal. Quart. 24, 245-55, 1955. MONTAGUE, M.F.A., 'On the physiology and psychology of swearing', Psychiat., 189-201 (Weeping in women as aggression outlet, substitute for function swearing performs for men.), 1942. PETO, E., 'Weeping and laughter', Intern. J. of Psychoanal. 27, 129-33, 1956. WEISS, J., 'Crying at the happy ending', Psychoan. Rev., 1952. G. Relation of weeping to Psychosomatic Pathology. ALEXANDER, F., Psychosomatic Medicine etc., G. Allen and Unwin, London, 1952; and Asthma, 139; Hysterical, 58; and Urticaria, 203. DUNBAR, F., Emotions and Bodily Changes, Columbia, New York, 43 (Weeping and neurosis in Urticaria.), 1954. HALLIDAY, J. C., 'Approach to asthma', Brit. J. Med. Psychol. 17, 1, 1937. SAUL, L. J. and BERNSTEIN, C., 'The emotional settings of some attacks of Urticatia', Psychosom. Med. 3, 349, 1941. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to quote from various works: Basic Books, Inc., New York (The Unconscious Before Freud, by L. L. Whyte). Doubleday & Co., Inc., New York (Pasteur and Modern Science, by Rene Dubos) © 1960, by Educational Services, Inc. (Anchor Science Study Series), and Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution, by Gertrude Himmelfarb, © 1959, 1962, by Gertrude Kristol). The Clarendon Press, Oxford (The Study of Instinct, by Dr. N. Tinbergen). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (Cerebral Mechanism in Behaviour -- The Hixon Symposium, ed. L.A. Jeffress). Little, Brown & Co., Boston (Louis Pasteur, by Rene Dubos, © 1950, by Rene Dubos). George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London (Thinking, by Sir Frederick Bartlett). Europa Verlag, Zürich (Albert Einstein, by Garl Seelig). Cambridge University Press, New York (The Name and Nature of Poetry, by A. E. Housman). G. Bell, London (Gestalt Psychology, by W. Köhler). Allyn & Bacon, Boston (Psychology, ed. A. D. Calvin, © 1961, by Allyn & Bacon). Methuen & Co., London (Learning and Instinct in Animals, by W. H. Thorpe). Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London (Personal Knowledge, by Michel Polànyi, Mentality of Apes, by W. Köhler, The Symbolic Process, by J. F. Markey, The Growth of Reason, by F. Lorimer, and Invention and the Unconscious, by J.-M. Montmasson). INDEX Absolute pitch, 521 Abstract art, 374 Abstract painting, 370 Abstract thought, 607-10 Abstraction, 607-10 and practicality, 705-6 perceptual and conceptual, 535-6 Adam, 47 Adaptation, 448 second order, 450 Addams, Charles, 52 Adrenal-sympathico system, 274 Adrenalin, 205 Aesop, 101 Aesthetic experience bisociative patterns in, 383-5 difficulty of analysing, 391 essence of, 328, 329, 383 Aesthetic judgement, snobbety and, 400 et seq. Aesthetic satisfaction, difference from sensory gratification, 385 Aesthetics, hedonist, 385 Affinity, association by sound, 314-15 After-images, 529 Age of enlightenment, 147 Aggressive-defensive impulses, sublimation of, 259 Aggressive-defensive tendency in humour, 52, 54, 56, 62, 89, 92, 95 Agrippa, 256 Albert the Great, 255 Alchemist's Rosarium, 145 Alchemists, 256 Algebra, rules for learning, 638 Alice, 78, 174 Alkhazen, 255 Allport, G. W., 501, 507 Amber, loadstones and, 661 et seq. Amino-acids, 418 Ammophila, 566 Ampère, A. M., 117, 230, 668, 669 An Essay on the Principle of Population, 140 Analogies, hidden, 179 Analogy, intuition and, 199-207 Analytical geometry, 230 Anarchy, creative, 229-30, 335 Anatomists, 256 Anatomy, 265 Anaximander, 13x, 137 "Ancient Mariner, The", 362 Animal behaviour, patterns of, 477 Animal electricity, 667 Animal Farm, 90 Animal Intelligence, 570 Animal learning, 562-5 Animals exploratory drive in, 505-6 fear and curiosity, 502-3 inquisitivessess of, 502 et seq. latent learning in, 498 originality in captivity, 493 tournament fights between, 475 (see also Chimpanzees, Dogs) Annalen der Chemie, 240 Anthropomorphism, 296 Antibiotics, 194 Anticipatory behaviour, 576 Apes, see Chimpanzees Aphasic patients, 599, 601, 602 note on, 604, 605 Aphrodite, 47 Apollonius of Perga, 102, 335 Appetitive behaviour, 480-4 Archetypes, 353-4, 3
89, 390 Archimedes, 212, 676 principle of, 105-8, 109 Aristarchus, 234, 677 Aristophanes, 53, 73 Aristotle, 53, 131, 176, 258, 307 on motivation, 675-6 Aristotelian physics, 216, 228 Art and progress, 393 et seq. appraisal of work of, 404-5 ascending gradients in, 390-1 bisociative patterns in, 383-5 bisociative processes in, 371-3 clichés in, 376, 377, 378 cumulative progress in, 393-5 economy in, 335-40 evolution of, 335 explicit statement to implicit hint, 337-8 folded in, 338 et seq. forgeries, 400, 401, 402 form of communication, 266 Greek, 394, 395-6 history of, 336, 367-9, 393-6 infolding, 398, 399 Italian, 394-5, 397 law of infolding and, 387-8 motif, 372-3 motion and rest in, 387-90 originality and emphasis, 333-5 period-consciousness, 406-7 pigment and meaning in, 370-1 progress not towards unitary laws, 352 relationship with science, 27, 28 school of self-transcendence, 328 statement and implication, 396-9 taste and distaste, 385-7 unity in, 387-90 visual inferences, 373-6 visual representation in, 367-9 Art and Illusion, 378 Art-forms, turning points in history of, 334-5 Articulation, 534 Artist, 27, 255, 257 and caricature, 70-72 bisociative act a juxtaposition of experience, 352 catharsis of experiences, 328 deadening influences on, 336-7 element of explorer inherent, 507 his medium, 333-4 individual style of, 334 law of infolding and the, 341-2 measure of originality, 334 stale techniques and the, 336 As You Like It, 68 Asexual reproduction, 451 Association, 642 et seq. by sound affinity, 314-15 by similarity, 200, 646, 651 controlled, 646 free, 646 in memorizing, 538-9 types of, 646-7 Association tests, 39-40 Associationism, 642, 646-7 Associative contexts, 38, 40 condensation in, 179 Associative learning, 587 Associative routine, criteria distinguishing bisociative originality from, 657-60 Astronomers, 48, 242, 251, 252 (see also Universe, Copernicus, Kepler) Astronomy, synthesis with Physics, 124 (see also names of astronomers, e.g. Copernicus, Kepler) Atheism, Darwin and, 692-6 Atoms, hooked, 164-6 ATP 420, 421, 437 Attunements, multiple, 642-6 Auditory perception, 513 et seq. Augustine, 148 Automatization of skills, 155, 156 Autonomous activities, 468 Autonomous nervous system, 57, 58, 62 Antotomy in animals, 451 Awareness, 632 defined, 155 degrees of, 154-7 linear gradient of, 156 linear scale of, 180 peripheral, 159 periphery of, 164 subsidiary, 159 Axial gradients in regeneration, 455 Bacon, Francis, 53, 74, 251, 342 Bacon, Roger, 227 Baerends, G. P., 476, 565, 567 Bain, A., 53, 200 Balancing skills, 42, 548 Ball, John, 326 "Ballad of Reading Gaol," 77 Balzac, H., 83, 318 Bambi, 67 Bartlett, Sir Frederick, 43, 515, 525, 539 quoted, 231 Basilar membrane of ear, 516 Bates, H. W., 141 B.B.C. Brains Trust, 80 Beagle, H.M.S., 134, 135, 692, 694 Beauty a function of truth, 331 truth and, 327-31 Beck, E., 550 Becquerel, H., 195-6 Bede, the Venerable, 255 Beerbohm, Max, 53 Behaviour acquired, 509 anticipatory, 576 appetitive, 480-4 exploratory, 501, 502, 504-7 functional analysis, 497 genetics of, 475-7 innate, 509 unit of, 499 verbal, in speaking, 593 Behaviour of Organisms, 556 Behaviour-patterns, instinct-based, 485-8 Behavioural matrices, 549 Behaviourism, 44, 495,496 Watsonian, 559 Behaviourists, 557, 558 and the unconscious, 157 Benevolent Magician, 255, 256, 257 Bergson, H. L., 32, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53, 61, 78, 92, 312, 363 Berlyne, D. E., 501, 505, 509, 510 Bernard, Claude, 706 Beveridge, W.I.B., 211, 213, 254 Bicycle, riding a, 42, 548 stamping-in, 550 Binet-Mueller test, 532 Biological evolution, 226 Biological ripeness, 109 Bird-song, 491-2 Birds counting ability of, 492 prelinguistic number sense of, 535-6 Birkhoff, G. D., 177 Bishop, the Marquis and the, 33-4 Bisociated contexts, clean-cut example of, 78 Bisociation, 35 et seq. artistic, 352 chimpanzee and, 573-5 displacement of attention, 77-8 impersonation, 67-8 in caricature and satire, 70-4 incompatible matrices, 59 metaphorical and literal meanings, 66 misfits and, 74-5 of child-adult, 68-9 of coincidence, 78 of incompatibles, 622 of man and animal, 67 of nonsense humour, 78-9 of pun, 64-5 of rhythm and meaning, 312 of sound and meaning, 90 of structure and function, 75-7 of tickling, 79-81 of trivial and exalted, 69-70 of wine-press and seal, 123 play of ideas, 65-6 professional and commonsense logic, 65-6 scientists and, 72 synthesis of signs and things, 222 the clown and, 81-2 Bisociative mechanisms, and the comic, 182 Bisociative originality, criteria distinguishing associative routine from, 657-60 Bisociative patterns, 45 in aesthetic experience, 383 in dreams, 179 Bisociative thinking, passive, in dreaming, 178 Bit learning, 522 Black Magician, 257, 259 Blackborough, Peter, 663 Blake, William, 316, 322, 326, 340, 362 Blimp, Colonel, 61 Blood-brother ceremony, 294 Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, 55, 280 Bodily changes, in weeping and crying, 271-2 Bodkin, Maud, 362 Boehme, Jacob, 148 Bohr, Niels, 198, 669, 671 Boillot, M., 697, 698 Boltzmann, 265 Bond, Henry, 663 Born, Max, 245 Botticelli, 329, 330 Boze, H., 204 Bragg, Sir L., 233 Brain, conceptual and speech mechanisms of, 602 Brain surgery, 315, 316 Brain-teaser, example of, 183-4 Brain-twisters, 91 Brandt, G. W., 352 Braque, 329 Brave New World, 73 Bronowski, J., 200, 230 note on, 254 Browne, Sir Thomas, 207 Brucke, Professor, 217 Bryan, W. L., 432, 544 Buddhist monk problem, 183-4, 189 Budding, 451 Buffon, Comte de, 131, 132, 228 Burner, J., 219 Burt, Sir Cyril, 21, 48, 603 note on, 96 Butler, Samuel, 144 Butterfield, H., 235, 260 Caddis-fly larva, 486 Calculus, infinitesimal, 110 Calderon, 53 Cannon, W. B., 55, 205, 211, 280, 286 Cantor's theory of infinite aggregates, 331 Caricature, 70-2, 90 Caricaturist, 182 Carlyle, T., 329 Carpenter, W. B., 152 Carracci, Annibale, 402 Carroll, Lewis, 67 Cartoons, 70-2 Cat, auditory nerve of, 514 "Cat in the Rain", 339 Catharsis, 306-9 Catholic Universe Bulletin, 37 Cats, 568-71 Causal sequencies, reversal of, 179 Causality, 615-18 physical, 584 Cavendish, 666 Cell, nucleus and cytoplasm, 421-3 Cell-matrix, 419-21 Centipede, paradox of the, 75-7 Central nervous system, control of motor activities by, 447 Centrosomes, 420 Cerebral cortex, regenerative adaptations of, 458 Cervantes, 148 Cezanne, 329, 538 Chambers, Robert, 132 Champollion, 186 Chaplin, Charlie, 61, 305 Character types, technique of creating, 68 Characters, fictional, 345 et seq. Charcot, 152 Chekhov, A., 69 Chemistry, learned by explicit verbal form, 637 Chess, 40-2, 639, 650 problems, 91 Child, C. M., 452, 453 Child-Adult, bisociation of, 68-9 Children and causality, 616 contradictions due to scales of relevant values, 627 learning to speak, 594 et seq. picture-strip language of, 606 questioning mania of, 616-18 stage where symbolic relations become relevant, 628 symbols as action-words, 606-7 vocabulary of, 221 Chimpanzees and tools, 573-4 experiments with, 101-2, 103-5, 108, 110, 119, 120, 504, 556, 573-5, 576-82 Chloroplasts, 420 Chromosomes, 419, 420, 421 Chronological matrices, 640 Cicero, 53, 74 Circular motion, 128, 129 Classificatory codes, 640 Closure principle, 387 Clown, 81-2 Cocaine Episode, 218-19 Cocteau, Jean, 182 Codes and coding, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 64, 96, 163, 209, 416, 418-21,424,428,464, 471-3, 479, 484, 518, 524, 552, 572, 593, 636-9, 642 et seq., 645, 656 et seq. autonomy of, 552 explanation of, 39, 40 in piano-playing, 547 in playing soccer, 549 logical, 625 mode of operation, 40 of organisms, 417 et seq. of perception, 376-80 suspension of, at discovery stage, 178 Coghill, G. E., 430, 431, 447, 506 Cognitive theories, 561-2 Cohen, J., 342 Coincidence, bisociation of, 78 Coleridge, S. T., 152, 166, 167, 169 Colour, temperature values of, 375 Comedy, 304 Comic Bergson's interpretation of the, 46, 47 bisociative mechanisms of the, 182 defining the, 31-2 Comic simile, 340 Comic technique, 82-6 (see also Humour, Laughter) Common sense, 636 Complexes, repressed, 181 Composing music, 547 Concepts, 642, 645 defined, 597 Concretization, and symbolism, 182-6 Conditional fear reflex, 610 Conditional reflex, 498 Conflict, 350-2 Connoisseurship, 537 Conscious and unconscious experiences, 154 ante-chamber of, 160, 161 code guiding focal beam of, 163 levels of, 658 linear scale of awareness distinguished from hierarchic levels, 632 presence chamber of, 160 protoplasmic, 154, 292 symbiotic, 292 two-way traffic with unconscious, 181-2, verbal thinking dominating, 600 Conservation of Energy, Principle of, 239 Constable, 378, 379, 381, 382 Consummatory act, 480-4 Contes Drolatiques, 83 Context level, in telegraphy, 545 Contradiction law of, 627, 628 three stages in law of, 627 Contradistinction, law of, 625 Controls, supra-ordinate, 468 Controversy, scientific, 240 et seq. Convention and creation, 380-2, Copernicus, 124, 125, 128, 216, 217, 225, 234, 240, 677 fear of ridicule, 238 Cordelier, Frère, 122 "Coronation Street", 302-3 Cosmic vortices, theory of, 663 Cos
ta of Haarlem, 122 Coué, E., 313 Coulomb, 664, 666 Counting, 623, 624 Course in Poetics, A, 317 Cowan, J. D., 21 Coward, Noël, 67 Cozens, Alexander, 376 Crab, ambulation of, 439 Craig,W., 481, 492, Craik, K. J., 506, 564, 585, 618, 634 Creation act of, based on an underlying pattern, 330 convention and, 380-2 judging an act of, 330-1 visual, 366 et seq. Creative act bisociation of two genetic codes, 452 dreamlike phases of, 325 musical composition, 547 psychologists' views on, 12-13 regression in, 315, 316 relaxing of controls in, 178 Creative activity a regression, 462 humour and, 31 operates on two planes, 35, 36 patterns of, 27 Creative anarchy, 229-30, 335 Creative emphasis, 82, 83 Creative instability, 498 "Creative Mind" note on, 177 Creative originality, 82-3, 131 Creative synthesis, see 'Discovery' Creativity regeneration and, 463-5 starts where language ends, 177 Crowther, J. G., on Maxwell, 689-90 Crustaceans, regeneration in, 451 Crying comparison with weeping, 271-2 in hunger, 281 in pain, 280 with fear, 281 Cubist, 376 Curiosity, 501-4 "Cutting of an Agate, The", 674 Daguerre, 195 Daily Express, 405 Dante, 148 Dantzig, T., 624 Darchen. R., 505 Darwin, C., 29, 80, 131, 132, 133 et seq., 213, 225, 503, 692-6, 707 natural selection and, 131-44 note on, 254 on pain, 280 Darwin, Dr. E., 132, 137, 143, 265 Darwin. R., 692 Data, collecting, 233 Daumier, 72 Davy, H., 668 Day-dreaming, 635 dreaming and, 180 Death-and-Rebirth motif, 358 et seq. Deformity, bisociation of, 74-5 de Gaulle, General, 70 Degradation theory of laughter, 53 De Magnete, 662 de Méré, Chevalier, 103 Denes, P., 534 De-particularization, in hearing, 515 Descartes, René, 53, 148, 149, 211, 228, 250, 342, 663 Descent of Man, The, 503, 693 Desdemona, 33, 58 Destructive environmental conditions, 449 Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences, 265, 679 quoted, 680-2 Dickens, Charles, 75 Dictionary of Psychology, 510 Dimensional variables in thinking, 630-1 Dirac, Paul, 245, 329 Discovery analogies related to scientitic development, 224 animal, 101-2, 103-4 anti-rabies vaccine, 114 'blindness' of thinkers, 216-20 by analogy and intuition, 199-207 by misadventure, 192 et seq. chance and ripeness, 108-18 collective, 335 concept of the unconscious, 147-54 data and, 233-5 derivations of artistic, 328 false inspirations and, 212-14 faulty integrations and, 214-16 Fuchsian functions, 114-16 independent multiple, 110 influence on art-forms, 334-5 inoculation, 112-13 letter-press, 123 links in history of, 230 magnetism and electricity, 661 et seq. mathematical, 114-18, 164 mechanism of the solar system, 124-30 multiple, 335 natural selection, 131-44 principle of Archimedes, 105-8 principle of relativity, 111 printing press, 121-4 rare in Art, 393 recurrent cycles in, 335 rediscovery, 335 Relativity Theory, 175-6 rules of, 652 scientists and, 190, 661 et seq. suspension of codes of disciplined reasoning in, 178 unexpected, 145 et seq. vaccination, 112-14 Discrimination, 610-11, 625 learning process, 490 Disease, controversies over origins of, 242 Disney, Walt, 67 Displacement, 189-91 activities, 485 of emphasis, 464 phenomenon of, 179 Disraeli, B., 133 DNA, 417 et seq., 421 Dogmatic matrices, 640 Dogs, 563-4, 565 Don Quixote, 38, 305 Donald Duck, 67 Donne, John, 229, 359, 363, 674 Double entendre, 91 Double identity, 179 Dramatic art conflict, 350-2 identification and, 345-6 origin of, 308-9 paradox and climax, 350-1 Dreamer, gullibility of the, 179 Dreaming essential part of psychic metabolism, 181 displacement in, 189 passive bisociation in, 178 restorative power of sleep derived from, 462 reversal of logic in, 191 Drever, J., 535 Dubos, R., 113, 247, 261 Duncker, Carl, 189 Dürer, 329 Dynamic equilibrium, 449 Dynamo, electrical, 194, 670 Ear, and hearing, 513 Eastman, Max, 79 Echo, 48 Eclogues, 146 Economy, 335-40, 397 in anthorship, 339 Eddington, 251, 265 Edison, T., 190, 196, 197, 256, 705 Effect, Law of, 495, 496 Egg, fertilized, 417 et seq. molecules of, 417-18 Ego, 292-3 Egomorphism, 296 Egyptian painting, 368, 376, 377 Eidetic images, 530-1 Einstein, A., 111, 146, 173, 175-6, 176-7, 183, 211, 213, 214, 234, 243, 249, 251, 256, 258, 461, 672, 704-5 and cosmic religiousness, 262 description of working methods, 171-2 Electric motor, 194 Electrical conduction, 665 Electricity and magnetism, 661 et seq. unification with magnetism, 230 Electromagnetic radiation, 670 Electrostatic field, 666 Elements, transmutability of chemical, 215 Eliot, T. S., 45 Embryo organizers and inducers, 425-8 regulative and mosaic development, 423-4 Embryonic development, motivation in, 467 Emerson, 388, 389 Emma Bovary, 310 Emotion earthing of, 328 science and, 255 et seq. Emotional catharsis, 383 at moment of discovery, 87-8 bodily changes of self-asserting, 56 catharsis of, 87, 88 inertia of, 55-63 James-Lange theory of, 286 laughter and, 53 et seq. participatory tendencies, 54, 271 et seq. physiological effects of, 57 reason and, 56 self-transcending tencdencies, 54, 88, 285 three-dimensional theory of, 276 Emotive potentials, 321-2, 328 Emotive response, law and order in, 325-6 Empathy, 188 projective, 296, 374, 386, 387 Empedocles, 131 Emphasis, 334 Empson, W., 353 Engrams, 519-20, 523 Environment, 448, 469 variable, 450 Enzyme-producing genes, 419, 422 Enzymes, 418 Epicureans, 131 Epicurus, 164 Epileptics, induced fits in, 311 Equilibrium, 448-50 Erasmus, 256 Erewhon, 73 Escapism, 306 Ether-drift, 244 Eudoxus, 256 Evolution, 226 regeneration and, 465-6 surplus of needs an inherent characteristic, 493 Evolutionary doctrine, 131 Evolutionary process, complementary aspects of, 416-19 Exaggeration, 333 'Excitation clang', 442 Experiment, verification by, 214 Experimental science, Galileo's, 680 Explanation, gradations in, 619-20 Exploratory drive, 87, 501, 502, 504-7 in organisms, 506-7 inherent, 507 Expressionist art, 370 Eyesight, 158 Eyseneck, 242 Facts, collecting, 233 Falstaff, 61 Faraday, Michael, 170, 171, 190, 194, 213, 230, 321, 668, 670, 687-8 Fear reflex, conditioned, 610 Fechner, 153, 495 Fermentation, controversy on, 240-1 Fey, Dietrich, 400 Fibonacci sequence, 329 Fichte, I. H., 151, 152, 159 Fiction, identification in, 345-6 Fidelio, 68 Finnegans Wake, 339 Fish nest-building, 479-80 swimming motions of, 438 Flatworm, 451, 454 Fleming, A., 145, 194, 200, 707 Flower, the root and the, 362-3 Focal awareness, 180 Fogg museum, Harvard, 402 Following response, 489-91 Fontanelle, 228 Foreshortening, 374 Forgetting, 190 Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms, 694 Forster's syndrome, 315-16 Fragonard, 336 Frames of reference, 35, 38, 40, 43, 63, 320 France, Anatole, 73 Frankenstein, 256 Frankenstein monsters, 47 Franklin, Benjamin, 202-4, 256, 665, 666, 685-7 Free association, 646 choice, 632-3 French Revolution, 132 Freud, S., 32, 55, 59, 86, 139, 153, 159, 166, 181, 191, 192, 200, 218, 256, 257, 265, 292, 320, 495, 496 quoted, 13 Fringe, 159 Fry, D. B., 534 Fry, Roger, 395 Fuchsian functions, 114-16 Full consciousness, 208 Function, reorganization of, 457-60 Functional integration, 416, 417 Fundamentalists, 131 Gabor, D., 21 Galambos, R., 513 Galanter, E., 433 Galatea, 47 Galileo, 48, 94, 102, 110, 125, 131, 176, 217, 228, 236, 239, 240, 256, 265, 507, 662, 679-83 Gall, F. J., 215, 234 Galois, Everist, 111, 704 Galton, Sir Francis, 160, 166 Galvani, Luigi, 667 Games, parlour, 38-9 strategy of, 39 Gastaut, H.. 550 Gauss, K. F., 117-18 Generalization, learning process, 490 Genes, 418 Genetic code, 417-19, 421 Genetics, controversies over, 241 Genius, corporate orthodoxy the curse of, 239 Germ theory, 247 Gestalt school of psychology, 109, 387, 432, 497, 560 ambiguities of, 582 pitfalls of, 573 et seq. theory, 517 Gibson, J. J., 50 Gilbert, W., 228, 662, 665 Gladstone, W. E., 143 Goethe, 132, 151, 257 Goldstein, K., 501 note on, 382 Golem of Prague, 47 Gombrich, E. H., 378, 395, 398 Goose, imprinted, 489 Gradients, ascending, 390-1 Grafting operations, 459 Graves, R., 321 Gravity, controversy on theory of, 240 Gray, Asa, 132, 665, 666 Greek art, 369, 372, 376, 377, 378, 395-6 Greek science, 675-6 Greig, J.Y.T., 32 Gris, Juan, 374 Groddeck, 153 Growth, controlled by genetic code, 432 Guarini, 335 Guericke, 665 Guided learning, 575, 612 Gulliver in Laputa, 257 Gulliver's Travels, 73 Gutenberg, J., 121, 163 Guthrie, E. R., 496, 559 Habit, 44-5 and originality, 649 et seq. Habit-formation, 155 Habits, mechanization of, 154-7 Hadamard, J., 116, 120, 147, 329 inquiry into working methods of mathemeticians, 171-2 Haeckel, Ernst, 250, 342 Halley, 663, 664 Hamburger, V., 424 Hamlet, 345 Hamman, 173 Handbook of Psychological Research on the Rat, 567 Handwriting, 552 Hardy, G. H., 329 Harlow, H. F., 501, 504 Harmony of the Spheres, 260, 261 Harter, N., 431, 544 Hartmann, E. von, 153 Harvey, W., 228, 234 Hauptmann, G., 351 Haüy, Abbé, 192-3, 707 Head, Henry, 532, 599, 601 Hearing, 513 et seq. filtering process in, 518-19 melody, 520-1 selective control of input, 514-16 Heat
h, T. L., 237 Hebb, D. O., 497, 498, 505, 519, 526, 537, 538, 561, 562, 565, 590, 607, 646 Hegel, 151 Heideshain, M., 432 Heine, H., 89, 90 Heinroth, O., 491 Helmholtz, von, 170, 217, 231 Hemingway, A., 69 Henry, Joseph, 194 Herder, 151 Hero, 102, 109 Herodotus, 623 Heron, W., 502 Herschel, 614 Herz, H. R., 671 Hierarchy, the concept of, 287-91 Hierarchic level of consciousness, 632, 633 Hierarchies of environment, 483 Hierarchies of feedback, 483 Hilgard, E. R., 496, 500, 556, 559, 562, 569, 590 Himmelfarb, G., 139 Hingston, R.W.G., 486 Hippasos, 215 Hippocratic 'humours', 48 Hippocratic Oath, 675 Hippocratics, 675 Histoire Naturelle, 131 History of Art discoveries of new techniques, 393-4 stagnation and cross-fertilization, 395-6 visual representation, 367-9 History of Physics, 664 History of science, 234 et seq. History of science, The, 334 Hixon Symposium, 413, 433 Hobbes, T., 53, 89, 214, 646 Hogarth, 72 Homer, 353 Homeric laughter, 30 Homunculus, 47 Honey-bee, 487, 567 Hook, Sidney, 176 Hooked atoms of thought, 164-6 Horrocks, J., 704 Horsley, Miss E., 21 Hoskins, M., 685 Housman, A. E., 317, 318, 354 How Natives Think, 624 Hull, C. L, 497, 499, 500, 557, 559 Human, perceptual and sensory-motor skills, 513 Human figure, proportions of, note on, 331-2 Humorist bisociative process of the, 93, 94 the creative act of the, 94 Humour aggression and, 52, 54, 56, 62 creation of, 91-3 defined, 31 economy in, 84 emotional dynamics of, 55 et seq. identification in, 54 implication in, 84 interpolation and extrapolation, 84 Law of Infolding and, 340 procedure for dissecting, 64 riddle in, 85, 86 technique of implication, 82-4 transformation, 85 varieties of, 64 et seq. (see also 'Comic technique', 'Laughter') Humphrey, G., 601, 603, 646 Humphreys, L. G., 499 Huxley, Aldous, 62 Huxley, T. H., 144, 213, 214, 218, 233 Huyghens, 228, 240 Hyden, H., 21, 519 Hydra, 451 Hypnosis, 297 Hypno-therapy, 297 Hypnotism in dental surgery, 239 Hypparchus, 234 Icarus, 46 Ideas combination of, 164 concretization of abstract and general, 179 evolution of, 224 et seq. history of, 19 Identification in literary work, 345-6 in weeping, 278, 279 magic and, 308-9 visual, 527 Il Saggiatore, 682 Illusion, 301-10 and escapism, 306 cathartic value of, 306 direct speech and, 310 dynamics of, 304-9 identification in, 308 power of, 301-3 the value of, 303-4 Image, 320 et seq. concrete, 179 logical and didactic appeal to intellect, 325 Imagery, dependence on emotive potentials, 321 Imitation, imprinting and, 489 et seq. Imitative bird-song, 491-2 Impersonation, 56, 90, 179 benefits of, 187-8 bisociation of, 68 parody an aggressive form of, 69 Implication, the technique of, 84 Impressionist painting, 398 Imprinting and imitation, 489 et seq. defined, 491 improvisation, musical, 547 Inducers, 425, 426, 427 Infolding, 333 et seq. Inheritors, The, 168 Innate behaviour, 477 Innate releasing mechanism, 478 Inoculation, 112 Input, in hearing, 513-16 Insects, insight and, 565-7 Insight Gestalt use of the term, 582-4 insects and, 565-7 not learned but dependent on learning, 590 perception of relations, 548 Insight and Outlook, 20, 149 Insight learning, 521-3, 576 characteristics of, 577, 580 criteria of, 577-9 preconditions of, 579-82 Inspirations, false, 212-14 Instinct learning and, 477-8 sublimation of, 320 Instinct-behaviour, 475 et seq. codes, 478 cyclic patterns of, 483-4 genetics of, 476 Integrations, gradual, 220 Intellectual illumination, 383 Intermittent reinforcement, 499 Introjection, 296 Intuition analogy and, 199-207 logic and, 112-18 Irony, 73-4 Irrational numbers, 215 Island, 73 Jack-in-the-box, 46, 49, 90 Jackson, Hughlings, 432 Jaensch, E. R., 374 Jakobson, R., 173 James, Henry, 265 James, William, 43, 152, 158, 159, 191, 265, 516, 592, 593 Janus principle in organic hierarchies, 467-8 Jeans, J., 265 Jenner, Edward, 112, 113 Jester, 27, 255, 257 John of Salisbury, 613 Johnson, Samuel, 30, 366, 401, 707 Joke, seeing the, 89 Jonah and the whale, 360-1 Jones, Ernest, 139, 218 note on, 507 Joyce, James, 339, 353 Jung, C. E., note on, 211 Jung, C. G., 166, 187, 353, 462, 647 Juvenal, 72, 505 Juxtaposition of aspects of experience, 352 Kafka's Castle, 73 Kant, E., 131, 150 Kantor, W., 244 Keats, J. 321, 330 Kekulé, F.A. von, 118, 169, 170, 171, 185, 240, 321 Keller, Helen, 222, 595 Kelvin, Lord, 199 Kepes, G., 388, 389 Kepler, J., 48, 103, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131, 145, 148, 163, 176, 199, 213, 217, 220, 228, 234, 237, 260, 261, 265, 290, 327, 330, 461, 463, 507, 576, 625, 649, 662, 675 ,683-4, 707 Galileo and, 679 Kepler's laws, 124-5 Kinetosomes, 420 King Solomon's Ring, 48 Kircher, A., 663 Kluever, H., 531 Knowing and seeing, 527-8 Koehler, Otto, 492, 535, 599, 623 Koenigstein, 219 Koffka, A., 517, 557, 584, 587, 622 Köhler, Wolfgang, 101, 103, 108, 109, 110, 220, 266, 492, 504, 517, 554, 556, 557, 560, 573, 575, 577, 578, 579, 581, 583, 587, 588, 589 Krechevsky, I., 566, 571 Kretschmer, E., 168, 265, 322, 323, 325, 460, 463, 606 Kruesi, J., 197 Kubla Khan, 166, 167, 168 La Ronde, 36 Laboratory disaster, 192 Lamarck, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 143 Lamartine, 150 Lamb, Charles, 186 Lancaster, Osbert, note on, 86 Language a thought-crystallizer, 173-7 note on, 604 pictorial, 168, 322-5 snares of, 173 et seq. the dawn of, 220-3 thinking and, 603 Language matrices, 640-1 Laplace, 103 Lashley, K. S., 413, 434, 458, 481, 491, 552, 554, 609, 636 Laughing through ones tears, 277 Laughter, 27 et seq. (See also Comic technique, Humour) and emotion, 51 et seq. and weeping, 271-3 audible, 29-30 breathing changes in, 29, 30, 59 defined, 29 discharge mechanism, 55 hinders biological drives, 51 illustrations of, 32 et seq. laboratory experiments, 30 list of occasions for, 60 logic of, 32 et seq. mechanisms of, 59-61 muscle contractions in, 29, 30, 59 Old Testament references to, 52-3 paradox of, 30-1 prevents biological drives, 51 rebellion against habit, 63 theory of degradation, 53 weeping and crying contrasted with, 272 Laughter reflex, 28-30 Law and order, 325-7 Lawrence, D. H., 90, 496 Lawrence, T. E., 67 Lawrence, W., 534 Laycock, Sir T., 152 Le Corbusier, 329 Le Rire, 32 Learning a bisociative process, 588-90 ability, differences in, 496-7 animal, 562-5 anticipatory behaviour of, 576 associative, 587 by trial and error, 576, 577 criteria of insight, 577-9 definitions of, 477 drive-reduction theory, 497, 504 feedback process in, 491 guided, 575, 612 in telegraphy, 544-5 insight, 576 instinct and, 477-8 motivation for, to learn, 506 motor, 550, 552 optimum, 496 perception and memory involved in, 513 perceptual, 490 piano-playing, 546-7 preconditions of insight, 579-82 serial, 545 skills, summarized, 549-54 stamping in, 577 symbolic coding, 533 through play, 509 to speak, 592 et seq. to think, 606 et seq. uniform factors in, 575-6 visual, 526-7 Learning potentials, reserve surplus of needs, 493 Learning processes, 490 reversal of hierarchic sequence of operations, 547 Learning theory basic differences of psychological schools, 561-2 pitfalls of, 556 et seq. retrospect, 556-7 Lee, Vernon, 374 Leerlauf activities, 484-5 Leibniz, 110, 131, 150, 228, 240 Lenin, 194 Leonardo da Vinci, 72, 329, 333, 375, 394 Leonine verse, 314 Letter-habit, 551 in telegraphy, 544 in touch-typing, 546 Leverrier, 234 note on, 254 Leviathan, 53 Lévy-Bruhl, L., 293, 309, 624 Lewin, K., 498 Leyden jars, 202, 203, 204, 666 Libido-theory, 496 Lichtenburg, 150 Lidice, 297 Liebig, 240 Light corpuscular theory of, 240 speed of, 243, 244 wave-theory of, 240 Lightning conductor, 202, 203 Lindauer, M., 487 Lindsley, D. B., 505 Linear awareness,, 632 Linnaeus, 131, 132, 228 Linné, Carl von, 131, 132 Linnean Society, 142 Literature archetypal patterns, 353-5, 354-7, 358-65 archetypes, 353-4 art of, defined, 301 conflict in novels, 350-2 dawn of, 309-10 forgeries, 401 identification in, 345-6 puppets and strings, 355-7 villains in, 351 Loadstones and amber, 661 et seq. Locke, John, 131, 149 Locomotor actions of fish and crab, 438-44 Locomotor hierarchies, 432-8 Loeb, J., 48 Loewi, Otto, 204-5, 206, 207, 220 Logic, 625-9 and intuition, 112-18 limits of, 145-7 mechanical, 160, 161, 162 reversal of, 191-9, 464 Longitude Found, The, 663 Longitude Not Found, The, 663 Longtailed Tits, consummatory acts of, 483 Lorenz, K. L, 48, 478, 481, 482, 492, 502, 506, 511, 557 Lorimer, F., 616 Lot's wife, 48 Lotus and the Robot, The, 177 note Lucretius, 131 Ludic, 511-12 Ludic behaviour, 509 et seq. Ludicrous, the, 511-12 Lysozyme, 194 McDougall, W., 53, 491, 501 McGill University, 158 McGlashan, A., 21 Mach, Karl, 649 Machine, man and, 45-9 Macpherson, James, 401 Maestlin, 625 Magic, 626 identification and, 308-9 of names, 613-14 of the stage, 308 participation in, 294 primitive and contemporary, 308 sublimation and, 258-63 word and symbol, 293 Magic Mountain, 90 Magical thinking, 261 Magician, Benevolent, 255, 256, 257 Magician Pope, 255 Magnetism and electricity, 661 et seq. unification with electricity, 230
Maillet, de, 131 Maimonides, 255 Maliphant, R., 21 Mallarmé, 337 Malskat, L., 400, 401 Malthus, 140, 14I, 142, 143, 207 Mammalia, regeneration in, 451 Man and animal, bisociation of, 67 Man and machine, 45-9 Manet, 69 Mangold, Hilde, 425 Manipulation, 558 Mantras, 313 Marbe's Law, 644 Marie, Pierre, 532 Mariner's compass, 661 Marquis, the Bishop and the, 33-4, 56, 92 Mars, orbit of, 128 'Martyrdom of St. Sebastian', 386-7 Marx, Groucho, 61 Marx, K., 694 Maskelyne, 230 Masochist, 65 Mass-psychology, 297 Mathematical games, 91 Mathematiclan's Apology, 329 Mathematicians aesthetic feeling of, 329 dependence on irrationalities, 147 Mathematics, 621-5 abstraction of individual numbers, 622 counting, 623 discovery a bisociative act, 164 intuitionists v formalists, 241 learned in explicit verbal form, 637 matching, 623, 624 number concept, 622, 623 thought processes, 39, 40 Matrices, 38, 44, 66, 76, 96, 221, 222, 424, 431, 471-3, 490-1, 524, 592, 640-1, 642 et seq., 654, 656 et seq., 705 and codes, note on, 50 any two can produce a comic effect, 66 bisociation of incompatible, 59, 220 blocked, 224-5 collision of, 45 dual control of, 415 emotive potential of, 321 flexibility of auditory-vocal, 492 language, 640-1 of verbal thought, 38 Matrix defined, 38 note on term, 50 remedy for a blocked, 163 Mau-Mau oath, 294 Maximes et Pensées, 53 Maxwell, James Clerk, 230, 258, 265, 669, 670, 671, 687, 688-92, 704, 705, 706, 708 Mayer, Robert, 239 Measure and meaning, 312-14 Mechanical encrusted on the living, 46 Mechanical logic, 160, 161 interference with, 162 Mechanisms, physiological, 48 Mechnikoff, E., 199 Medium, artist's, 333-4 Meister, Josef, 114 Melody, tracing a, 520-1 Melville, H., 361 Memory analysing-devices, 524-6 association, 538-9 auditory, 533-5 discrimination, 537 generalization of input, 537 images, 531-3 in all learning processes, 576 levels of, 528-31 perception and, 513 et seq. photographic, 529 picture-strip recall, 524-6, 530, 531 recognition and recall, 539-41 related to auditory perception, 518-19 Memory-formation, 347, 348 parsimony in, 523 Memory-systems, hierarchy of, 523 Mendel, note on, 254 Mental evolution, 226 Mental scanning, comparison with visual 161 Mentality difference between primitive and modern, 626 tribal, 308 Mentality of Apes, The, 101, 504, 560, 579, 582, 583 Mesmer, 239, 256 Messenger RNA, 419 Metaphors, 167, 320, 321 Metaphysics, Maxwell and, 688-92 Metric patterns, 314 Michelson, 243 Microbiology, 194 Midsummer Night's Dream, A, 53, 172 Miller, D. C., 244, 433, 443, 499 note on, 254 Milton, J., 674 Minkovsky, 175 Misadventure, discovety by, 192 et seq. Mispronunciation, bisociation and, 76-7 Mitochoncitia, 420 Mitty, Walter, 179 Mnemic processes, 528-31 Moby Dick, 361 Molecular constitution, theory of, 169-70 Molecules, theories on structure of orginic, 240 Momentary regressions, 169 Mondrian, 389, 390 Monotony, 551 Montaigne, 148 Morgan, Lloyd, 145, 513, 559, 560 Morphogenesis axial gradients in, 455 specialistion in, 423 Morphogenetic fields, 423, 424 Motif, in Art, 372-3 Motivation, 495 et seq., 635 Aristotle on, 675-6 by expectancy, 497, 500 for learning, 500 in embryonic development, 476 negative type, 495 et seq. secondary drives, 497, 500 summary of psychologists' views on, 495-8 Motivational drive in scientists, 675 Motor activities controlled and modified by the CNS, 447 independence of, 444 Motor-car, driving a, 469-70 Motor learning, 550, 552 Motor-patterns, self-assertive tendencies of, 552 Motor reflexes, in laughter, 30-1 Motor responses, lowering of in emergency reactions, 57 Motor skills, 544 et seq. automatization of, 632 complex emergency-reorganizations in, 554 verbal symbolism and learning, 599 Moulin, L., 703 "Mountains like White Elephants", 339 Mourning, as reason for weeping, 274-6 Mowrer, O. H., 495 Mueller, Johann, 704 Multiple potential, 706 Munn, N.L, 567 Muscles functioning of, 435-7 selective response of, 442 Music, 313-14, 515 et seq, aesthetic appreciation, 385-6 composing, 547 reversibility in, 198 Musical phrase, in piano-playing, 546 Myers, F.W.H., 69, 152 Mysteries of nature, 260 Mysterium Cosmographicum, 125 "Name and Nature of Poetry, The", 435 Names, magic of, 613-14 Napier's logarithms, 625 Narcissus, 48 Natural selection, Darwin and, 131-44 Nature, looking at, 366-9 "Nature of Explanation, The", 506 Needham, J., 426, 432, 467 Neo-Behaviourists, 561 Neoplatonists, 131, 148 Nerve-impulses, Chemical transmission of, 204-7 Nervous system, 426, 427 control on growth completion, 432 development of the, 430-2 super flexibility of functions, 459 Neumann, J. von, 32 Neurology, reflex-formula and, 498 Neurophysiology, 231 and exploratory drive, 505, 506 controversy, 241 New Astronomy Based on Causation or Physics of the Sky, A, 124, 128, 129, 217, 234, 265 New Landscape, The, 388 New Yorker, 37, 85 Newton, Alfred, 144 Newton, Eric, 388, 394, 395 Newton, Sir I., 69, 110, 124, 131, 176, 200, 228, 240, 256, 290, 663, 684-5, 708 first Law of Motion, 237 Nicolas of Cuss, 260 Nicolle, Charles, 257 Nicolson, Marjorie, 674 Nietzsche, 153 Night journey, 358-60 1984, 90 Nissen, H. W., 502 Noise, 514 Non-representational art, 370 Nonsense humour, bisociation of, 78 Normal conditions, defined, 449 Norris, John, 149 Note habit, in piano-playing, 546 Novel, conflict, 350-2 Nucleus, action of cytoplasm on, 422 Number-concepts, 622 individual, 622-3 personalized, 623 Numbers, irrational, 215 Objective verifiability, 28 Oceanic feeling, 88, 260, 263, Oceanic wonder, 327, 318, 634 Oedipus Rex, 355 Oedipus story, 32, 35, 68 Oersted, H. C., 230, 668 Oistrakh, D., 59, 60 Old Testament quoted, 323 references to laughter, 52-3 On Growth and Form, 466 On the Face in the Disc of the Moon, 237 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 125, 677 Ontogenesis, 451 Operant behaviour, 496, 499 Operators, 419 Optical pun, 179, 182 Optical realism, 585 Optics, 131 Order, law and, 325-7 Organelles, 420 Organic life governed by rules, 631 Organisms adaptations, 448, 450 code for making, 417 et seq. function of nervous system, 506 incentive to exploratory activities, 507 not masses reacting to environment, 498 regenerative span of, 450-2 super-flexibility of, 450 Organization perceptual, 587 principles of, 467 et seq. Organizers, 425 Origin and Nature of the Emotions, The, 285 Origin of Species, The, 132, 134, 135, 142, 707 Originality and emphasis, 333-5 criteria distinguishing routine from, 654 degrees of, 654-7 forgetting a prerequisite of, 190 habit and, 44-5, 649 et seq. Orphic mysticism, 260 Orthodox, pitfalls of, 639 Orwell, George, 67, 73, 323 Osgood, C.E., 559, 568, 644 Ossian, 401 Othello, 33, 56 Over-learning, 551 Overshooting characteristic of evolution, 493 Over-statements of the body, 58 Paget, Sir, R., 534 Painter, engaged in learning to see, 507 Papageno, 61 Paracelsus, 148, 256 Paradox, the humorist and, 93-4 Paradoxes, logical, 91 Paranormal conditions, 449 Parasympathetic reactions, 305 Parasympathetic system, 274 Parody, bisociation in, 69-70 Parrot-talk, 491-2 Parsimony, Principle of, 495 Participation, Law of, 293 Participatory tendencies, 54 Pascal, 103, 228, 704 Pasteur, Louis, 112, 113, 114, 115, 200, 225, 241, 256. 261, 696-702, 707 germ theory, 247 study of crystallography, 193 Pathology of thought, 235-40 Pattern-learning, 522 Pavlov, I. P., 498, 504, 505, 557, 576, 584, 611, 628 Pavlov's dogs, 563-4, 565, 580, 582 Pendulum problem, 189-90 Penfield, W., 597, 599, 601, 602 Penicillin, 194 Perception and memory, 513 et seq. conditioning and insight in, 521-2 of relations, 548 of sound patterns, 533 Perceptual codes, 347, 348, 376-80 learning, 490 organization, 587 projection, 295, 373 Peregrine, Peter, 227, 661 Peripheral awareness, 159, 18o Personal equation, 231 Perspective, 374 Persuaders, hidden, 42-4 Phagocytes, 199 Philosophie Zoologique, 138 Philosophy of the Unconscious, 153 Phoenix of Astronomy, 678 Phonetic matrices, 640 Phonograph, 197 Photography, 195 Photosynthesis, 42o Phrase-habit, 551 Phrenology, 215 Physical causality, 584 Physics, science of reasons for delay in emergence of true, 236 synthesis with Astronomy, 124 Physiological isolation, 452-3 creativity and, 463 Physiological regeneration, 451 Piaget, J., 292, 585, 596, 598, 614, 627 Piano-playing, 42, 551, 552 learning habits in, 546-7 Picasso, 71, 92, 120, 402 and the 'fakes', 82, 84 Pictorial thinking, 168, 322-5 Picture postcards, 383-5 Picture-strip language, 606 Picture-strip recall, 524-6, 530, 531 Pigment, 370-1 Place-learning, 545 Planck, Max, 147, 213 Platner, E., 151 Plato, 131 Plato's Cave, 73 Play definitions of, 509-10 learning through, 509 et seq. Play of ideas, 65-6 Pleasure, derivation of, 495 Pledge, H. T., 228 Plotinus, 148 Plots, 345. et seq. cataloguing, 354-5, 355-7 Plutarch, 237 Poet element of explorer inherent, 507 imagery produced by metaphor, 167, 320 Poetic inspiration, 315 Poetry, learning, 521 Poincaré, Henri, 145, 147, 164, 165, 166, 211, 212, 234, 329, 330 discovery of Fuchs
ian functions, 114-16 Pointillist, 376 Polànyi, M., 21, 159, 242-3, 244, 464, 564, 588 Political cartoon, 70 Polya, G., 177, 650, 652 Polyp, 451 marine, 456 Popper, K. R., 176, 246 Practicality and abstraction, 705-6 Pre-conscious state, 152, 159 Pribram, K. H., 433 Priestley, Joseph, 204 Principa, 663 "Principle of Contemplementary", 198 Principles of Gestalt Psychology, 517 Pringle. J.W.S., 519 Printing-press, 121-4 Probability, theory of, 103 Problem-solving, 635, 649 et seq. Problems routine of solving, 651 searching for a code, 652-4 solution by analytical method, 650 solving by synthetic method, 650 Projective empathy, 296, 374, 386, 387 Proteins, 418 Proust, 312 Provisional tries, 571 Pseudo-proverb, 79 Psychoanalysis, 188 Psychological field theory, 498 Psychology and motivation. 495 et seq. fashion in, 248 new orientation, 498 et seq. self-transcending emotions and, 285 et seq. Psychology from the Standpoint of Behaviourist, 557 Psychology of Laughter and Comedy, 32 Psycho-physical isomorphism theory, 588 Psychoses, hallucinatory, 324 Psychotherapy, 188, 242 aims of, 465 free-association method, 631 regeneration and, 461 Ptolemy, 128, 234 Puerperal fever, 239 Pulsation. 311-12 Pun, 77, 179 bisociation of single phonetic form with two meanings, 64-5 optical, 182 sound affinity, 314, 315 Punch and Judy, 48, 49 Punning, 186-7 compulsive, 315-16 Punning mania, 65 "Purchas's Pilgrimage", 166, 168 Pure consciousness, 635 Puzzle box, cat in, 568-70 Pygmalion, 47 Pyke, M., 227 Pythagoras, 111, 191, 255 discovery of musical pitch, 111, 191 Pythagorean revival and Shakespeare, 674 Pythagorean Scale, 260 Pythagoreans, 48, 215, 227, 259-60, 675 Quantum mechanics, 245 Quantum physics, 199 Quixote, Don, 46 Raptness as reason for weeping, 273-4 Rationality of nature, 680 Rats, experiments with, 458-9, 500, 502, 520, 556, 558, 567-8 Reading, 534 Reason, emotions and, 56 Reasoning, unconscious processes and, 163 Reasoning skills, 40 Recall, 539-41 Receptors, 435 Red Queen, 77-8 Reflex defined, 28-9, 499 laughter, 28 et seq. Reflex arc, 498 Reflexes, twin, 62 Regeneration axial gradients in, 455-6 creativity and, 463-5 evolution and, 465-6 pychotherapy and, 461 Regenerations routine, 457 structural, 454-5 Regenerative equilibrium, 454 Regenerative span, 450-2 Regiomontanus, 704 Regression of poetic inspiration, 315, 316 value of, 173 Regressions, momentary, 169 Reik, T., 188 Relativity, Theory of, 183, 243-6 discovery of principle of, 111, 175-6 Relevance, 625 Relief, as reason for weeping, 276-8 Religion, scientists and, 260-3 Rembrandt, 69, 328 Renan, Ernest, 147, 261 Renoir, 554 Repetition of syllables, 314 Repressed complexes, 181 Repressors, 419 Responses, 499 Reticular activating system, 505 Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 217 Rhyming, 314 Rhythm and rhyme, 311 et seq. Law of Infolding and, 340-1 Rhythmic periodicities, 313 Ribot, T. A., 32 Richards, I. A., 311, 340 Richardson, O. W., 230 Richter, Jean-Paul, 151 Riddle, 85, 86 Riddles of the Universe, The, 250 Richmann, M., 204 Ripeness, 144, 145 for discovery, 108 et seq. RNA, 427, 455 Roberts, L., 601 Rock-'n'-Roll, 311 Rohrschach, 375, 376 Rohrschach test, 538 Romeo and Juliet, 68 Röntgen, W.K., 195 Root and the flower, the, 362-3 Rosamund, 68 Rosenthal, R., 568 Rosetta stone, 90, 186 Royal Society, 132 Ruch, T. C., 443, 553 Ruskin, 395 Russell, Bertrand, 200, 251, 262, 265, 556, 567, 586, 587, 606 Rutherford, 176, 671 Sadist, 65 Sage, 27, 255 Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy, 132, 133 St. Thomas Aquinas, 148, 228, 255 St. Vitus's dance, 311 Salamander, 426, 430 normal function of transplanted limb, 457 regeneration of eye lens, 456 regeneration of lost limb, 454 Sancho, 38 Sandemanians, 688 Sarsi, Father, 240 Sartor, Henry, 224 Satire, 72-4 Scanning objects and rules of the process, 162 visual and mental, 158 et seq. Schelling, 151 Schiller, F., 257, 318 Schizophrenic symbols, 324 Schopenhauer, 36, 354 Schrödinger, Erwin, 245, 265 Science boredom of, 263-6 boundaries of, 248-52 emotion and, 255 et seq. fashions in, 246-8 history of, see Science, History of hypnotism and, 239 Law of Infolding and, 342-3 martyrology of, 239 orthodoxy and, 238, 239 progress towards universal laws, 352 relationship with art, 27, 28 religion and, 261-2 religious mysticism and, 260-1 'river-delta' pattern of progress, 352 words as tools and traps for, 176 Science, history of, 224 et seq. controversies, 240 impact of religion and politics, 238, 239 neither continuous, nor cumulative, 253 twenty-six centuries of, 227-8 Science and Human Behaviour, 556, 557 Scientific evidence, 242 Scientific Revolution, 260 leaders of, 677-84 Scientists abstraction and practicality, 705-6 and the infinite, 261-3 bisociation and, 72 catharsis of problems, 328 destruction of the self-evident, 176-7 discovery and, 190 (see also Discovery) intellectual characteristics of, 703-8 irrationality in, 146 motivational drive, 675 multiple potential, 706-8 precociousness of, 703-4 religion and, 260-3 the Benevolent Magicians, 255-6 the creative and his audience, 263-6 the Mad Professors, 256 the uninspired Pedant, 256-7 the White Magician, 257-8 visual imagery and, 169-73 Scott, Sir W., 211 Screening activity in hearing, 513 et seq. Selection, 333 Selective emphasis, 397 Self-amputation in animals. 451 Self-assertive tendencies, 255, 257, 259, 305 in humour, 52, 56, 57, 95 in organic hierarchy, 449 of part-behaviour, 468 sublimation of, 259 Self-awareness, degrees of, 633-5 Self-pity as reason for weeping, 280 Self-transcendence, 303 voluntary, 294 Self-transcending emotions, 54, 258, 263, 285, 298, 305, 328 in weeping, 273-4 sublimation of, 261 Semantic differentials, 644 Semmelweiss, Ignaz, 239, 240 Semon, R., 531 Sense of wonder, 674 et seq. Sensory gratification, difference from aesthetic satisfaction, 385 Seurat, 174, 329 Sex-drive, 496 Sexual tension, 496 Shaftesbury, Earl of, 15o Shakespeare, 148 Shaw, G. B., 47, 120 Shelley, P. B., 321 Sherrington, Sir Charles, 28, 432, 498 Sign-learning theory, 497 Simplification, 333 Skill autonomous and automatic functioning, 550-1 balancing, 548 complex, assertive tendencies of, 552 dual control in exercise of, 38 hierarchic structure of complex, 288-9 morphogenic, 415 motor, 544 et seq. perceptual, 489 et seq. hearing, 513 et seq. prenatal, 415 et seq. vegetative, 415 Skinner, B. F., 157, 496, 499, 500, 556, 557, 559 Skinner Box, 248 Smiling, facial changes in, 29 Smithers, D. W., 456 Smoke micrographs, 389, 390 Snobbery, the aesthetics of, 400 et seq. 'Snowblindness' of thinkers, 216-20 Soccer, 552 techniques of playing, 549 Sound affinity, association by, 314-15 Souriau, 145 Space and Time, 174-5 Speak, learning to, 592 et seq. Spearman, C., 177 Speech action-words of children, 606-7 childhood aspects of, 594-6 concepts and labels in, 597-9 dawn of symbol consciousness, 594-6 direct, in illusion, 310 ideation and verbalization in, 600-3 memory and, 533-5 motor activity precedes sensory control, 594 preparation before, 592-3 verbal behaviour in, 593-4 Spencer, Herbert, 55, 69, 432 Spider, code of rules in building web, 38 Spinoza, 650, 651 Sponges, 451 Spontaneous activities, 468 S-R Theories, 561-2 Stamping-in, 521 522, 549-50 Steam engine, 102, 109 Stein, Gertrude, 433 Stickleback, reproductive behaviour of, 479 Stimuli, 499 Strategy, related to skill, 38 Structural differentiation, 416, 417 "Studies on the Telegraphic Language", 544 Stutterers, bisociation of, 74 Style, artistic, 334-5, 336-7 Style codes, 640-1 Sublimation, magic and, 258-63 Subliminal self, 164 Subsidiary awareness, 159 Sullivan, Miss, 222 Sully, J., 29 Super-ego, 65 Suzuki, D. T., note on, 177 Swift, Dean, 73, 252, 257 Swinburne, 322 Sylvester II, 255 Symbolism, concretization and, 182-6 Symbolist movement, 337 Sympathico-adrenal system, 57, 59, 62, 88, 280, 305 Sympathy as reason for weeping, 278-9 Syntheses, premature Keplerian cosmology, 215 things and numbers, 215 Tancred, 133 Taste, 385-7 Taton, R., 234 Technical communications, 265 Telegraphy, 551 learning processes in, 544-5 Telepathy, 188 Tension, unpleasurable, 496 et seq. Thacker, L. A., 506 Theophrastus, 664 Theorizing, derivation of term, 260 Thinking abstraction of pre-verbal concepts, 607-10 application of the term 'code', 638 associative, 635 causality, 615-18 concretization of relation' between words and things, 613-14 dimensional variables, 630-1 directive, 635 discrimination in, 610-11 explanation, nature of, 618 in pictures, 168, 322-5 logic, 625-9 magical, 261 master-switches and releasers, 635-7 mathematical, 39, 40, 621-5 multi-dimensional, 630-2 not a linear process, 159 physiological aspect of, 57-8 pictorial, 167, 168 recognition and transfer, 611-13 rules and codes, 637-41 single plane, 35, 36 some aspects of, 630 et seq. steps in purposive, 163 underground, 178 et seq. verbal, 38-9, 43 visual, 347-8 Thinking -- an experimental and Social Study, quoted, 231 Thinking aside, 145 et seq., 182 Thompson, d'Arcy, 466 Thompson, J. J., 671 Thomp
son, W. R., 502 Thorndike, E. L., 495, 504, 557, 568, 569, 570, 586 Thorpe, W. H., 450, 477, 478, 483, 491, 492, 493, 506, 511, 548, 562, 565, 567 Thought abdication of conceptual, 170 hooked atoms of, 164-6 influence of unconscious processes on, 159 et seq. laws of, 628 matrices of, 38 et seq. matrix of verbal, 38-9, 43 pathology of, 235-40 rules in disciplined. 178 verbal, specific patterns of, 636-7 Thought processes, mathematical, 39, 40 Tickling, bisociation of, 79 Tillyard, E.M.W., 674 Time, Space and, 174-5 Tinbergen, N., 415, 433, 449, 450, 475, 481, 482, 506, 557, 565, 566 hierarchic control of instinct-activity, 478-80 Tolman, E. C., 497, 500, 561, 570, 571 Tolstoy, L., 339 Tools discovery of, 101-3 making of, 103-5, 573 use of, 573 Total matrix, 641 Touch-typing, 545 Towns with M (parlour game), 162, 643-4 Tragedy, 304 cathartic function of, 307 Tragic and trivial planes, 358 et seq. Traité de Mineralogie, 193 Transfer, 611 Transference, 296 Transmutation of chemical elements, 215 Transparency of language, 155 Trans-substantiation, 294 Trauma, 449 factors leading to regenentive or pathological changes, 456 Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, 141 Treatise on Paintings, 375 Trial and error learning, 576, 577 Tribal mentality, 308 Triptych, 27, 28, 46, 47, 48, 54, 88, 89, 91, 255 Tri-valency of creative activity, 45 Trivial Plane, 363-364, 365 True play, 509-10 Truth a function of beauty, 331 and beauty, 327-31 Tucker, Abraham, 152 Tumours, due to physiological isolation, 456 Tune, 520 Turgenev, 318 Twist, the, 311 Tycho de Brahe, 127, 128, 131, 213, 240, 249, 256, 662, 678 Tyndall, John, 690 Type-casting, 123 Typing, 552 learning processes in, 544, 545-6 stamping-in, 550 Unconscious an automaton, 164 coaxing the, 317-19 concept of the, 147-54 forgetting and the, 190 thinking in pictures, 168, 322-5 two-way traffic with conscious, 181-2 "Unconscious, before Freud, The", 148 Unconscious cerebration, 152 Unconscious guidance, theory of nature of, 164 Unconscious understanding, 619 Understanding, gradations of, 619-20 Unified Field Theory, 251 Unity-in-diversity, 387 Unity-in-variety, 388, 390 Universe, 260-1, 662 Aristotelian system, 237 classic example of mental block, 236 Copernican, 94, 125, 216-17, 234, 677 Einstein's, 244-45, 260, 262 expanding and steady-state controversy, 241 Kepler and the, 103, 124-30, 176, 199, 213, 217, 237, 261, 290, 677, 679, 684 Newtonian, 175, 245, 685 Ptolemlic system, 677 Universes of discourse, 38, 40 Uranus, 614 Usher, Bishop, 685 Vaccination, 112-14 Valéry, Paul, 317 van Helmont, 663 van Megeeren, 401 Van't Hoff 240 Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication, 137, 139 Verbal ability, note on, 605 Verbal behaviour, 593-4 in speeches, 593 Verbal creation, 301 et seq. Verbal models, 634 Verbal symbolism, 594-6 Verbal thought among mathematicians, 172-3 matrix on, 38-9, 43 specific patterns of, 636-7 value of regression from, 173 Verne, Jules, 256 Verse, 313 nonsense, bisociation of exalted and trivial, 78-9 Vesalius, 265 Vestiges of Creation, 132 Virgil, 146 Vision limits of focal, 158 non-existence of static, 158 note on, 50 Visual constancies, 43, 373, 515 Visual creation, 366 et seq. Visual imagery, scientist's and, 169-73 Visual inferences in Art, 373-6 Visual input, in piano-playing, 547 Visual learning, 526-7 Visual perception, reversability in, 192 Visual scanning, 158 et seq. comparison with mental scanning, 161 Visual thinkers, 348 Visual thinking, 183 Vogue, 36 Volta, 667 Voltaic battery, 667, 668 von Bertalanffy, L., 432, 448 von Holst, E., 435, 438 Voodoo-dancers, 311 Wallace, A. R., 137, 141, 142, 143, 207 690 Wallis, C., 21 Walter, G., 49 Warden's maze experiment, 598-9 Wasps, 476, 486, 566 Waterston, J. J., note on, 254 Watson, J. B., 220, 496, 504, 507, 557, 558, 559, 594, 610 Watson-Crick model, 417 Watt, James, 69 Webster, D. L., 669 Weeping, 299 comparison with crying, 271-2 psychology of, 271 et seq. reasons for, 273-82 Weiss, Paul, 433, 435, 440, 441, 441, 443, 444, 506, 519 Wellington, Duke of, quoted, 44 Wells, H. G., 60, 174, 256, 383 Wernicke, C., 533 Whale, Jonah and the, 360-1 White Magician, 257 Whitehead, A. N., 251, 265 Whyte, L. L., 148, 151, 153, 177, 260 Wiener, Norbert, 177 Wilde, Oscar, 77, 79, 85, 92 Wilkes, John, 36 Wilson chamber, 249 Wine-press, 163 Wit malicious, 92 note on, 50 Wit and its Relations to the Unconscious, 32 Wittgenstein, L., 177 Witticism, 64-7 derivation of term, 28 Wolff, Christian, 150 Wollberg, L.R., 375 Woodger, J. H., 432 Woodworth, R. S., 173, 448, 481, 505, 544, 562, 600, 647 Wonder, sense of, 674 et seq. Wonderful Century, The, 690 Word-association tests, 39-40, 636, 637 code for, 39 Word-associationist school, 161 Word-habit, 551 in telegraphy, 544 Words as tools and traps, 176 snaring of scientific thought by, 175 Wordsworth, W., 152 Wright, Almroth, 707 Writing, economy in, 339 Wundt, W., 153 Xerxes, 623 X-rays, 195 Xylographs, 121 Yang and Yin, 199 Yeasts, 699 Yeats, W. B., 312, 341, 363, 674 Yoga, 634, 635 Young, Thomas, 672 Zen Buddhism, 157 note on, 177 Zen painting, 376, 377 Zygote, 425, 428 PENGUIN ARKANA Modern psychology states that up to a point every person is an automaton. The Act of Creation begins where this view ceases to be true. Koestler affirms that all creatures have the capacity for creative activity, frequently suppressed by the automatic routines of thought and behaviour that dominate their lives. The study of psychology has offered little in the way of an explanation of the creative process, and Koestler suggests that we are at our most creative when rational thought is suspended -- for example in dreams and trance-like states. Then the mind is capable of receiving inspiration and insight. Taking humour as his starting point, Koestler examines what her terms 'bisociative' thinking -- the creative leap made by the mind that gives rise to new and startling perceptions and glimpses of reality. From here he assesses the workings of the mind of the scientific or artistic genius. The general reader as well as the reader with a deeper knowledge of the topics covered will find this richly documented study of creativity both illuminating and compelling. Cover photograph by Eitan Lee Al PENGUIN ISBN 0-14-019191-7 Psychology/Psychiatry U.K. £13.99 CAN. $21.99 U.S.A. $14.95