by Ying-shih Yü
), and baked cakes with
sesame seeds.128 According to Explaining Words, noodle food was called bing ,
because the word indicates the idea of blending ( bing
) fl our with water.129 In
connection with this, a fl our- kneading scene has been found in Han and Wei- Jin
tombs such as Yinan and Jiayu Guan.130 Boiled noodles and swung noodles are
also mentioned in Monthly Ordinances for the Four Classes.131 Boiled noodles were
so popu lar in the second century c.e. that even the emperor ate them ( HHS,
63.14b–15a). It was prob ably no accident that from Wang Mang’s time on, selling
noodle food became a notable business ( HS, 99B.18b; HHS, 64.23b, 82B.12a.132
The Western Jin writer Shu Xi (late third and early fourth centuries) com-
posed a fu on noodle food (“Bing fu
”). According to him, people in Zhou
times were acquainted with wheat grain food but not noodles, which had devel-
oped only in the very recent past. He made a special reference to the art of fl our
kneading by describing vividly how the cook’s skillful hands and fi n gers moved
in molding the fl our dough into a variety of shapes. He also mentioned how
noodle food could be delicately cooked with meats (especially mutton and pork)
and seasonings (including ginger, scallions, fagara, and above all, shi). From a
historical point of view, however, the following observation that he made on the
origins of noodle food interests us even more: “The vari ous kinds of noodles
and cakes were mainly the invention of the common people, while some of the
cooking methods came from foreign lands.”133 In other words, it was the inge-
nuity of the Han Chinese in experimenting with the most common of eating
materials, coupled with a willingness to learn from other cultures, that eventu-
ally led to the opening of an entirely new chapter in Chinese culinary history.
116 f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e
not e s
1. As I was fi nishing this chapter, Hayashi Minao’s
detailed study of food and
drink in Han times (in Japa nese) came to my attention. Like my work, Hayashi’s is also
based on both archaeological and textual evidence, although our approaches are diff er-
ent. The reader is therefore referred to Hayashi’s valuable work for additional informa-
tion on the subject. See Hayashi, “Kandai no inshoku”
, Tōhō gakuhō
48 (1975): 1–98.
I wish to take this opportunity to thank the Institute of Chinese Studies, Chinese
University of Hong Kong, for providing me with research assistance in the fall term,
1974–1975, which facilitated the original preparation of this chapter. I am indebted to
Susan Converse for her research and editorial help.
2. Hunan sheng
, “Changsha Mawangdui er sanhao Hanmu fajue jianbao” (here-
after “Fajue jianbao”)
, WW 7 (1974): 46–48.
3. Hunan sheng bowuguan
, Changsha Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (hereafter
Mawangdui yihao Hanmu)
(Beijing: Wenwu Press, 1973),
1:35–36.
4. See also Gao Yaoting
, “Mawangdui yihao Hanmu suizang pin zhong gong shi
yong di shoulei”
, WW 9 (1973): 76–78.
5. However, in light of bamboo slips found in Han Tomb No. 3 at Mawangdui, the identifi -
cation of Yugeng with Dageng may still be an open question. See Zhongguo kexue yuan
kaogu yanjiusuo
, and Hunan sheng bowuguan, WW 1 (1975): 55.
6. Liji, 8.8a; cf. James Legge, Li Chi: Book of Rites (New York: University Books, 1967), 1:35.
Zhouli zheng zhu, SBBY (Shanghai: Zhonghua, 1936), 4.35.
7. Lunheng
(Shanghai: Renmin, 1974 edition), 452.
8. Hunan sheng bowuguan, Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (1973), 131–132.
9. Gao Yaoting, “Mawangdui yihao Hanmu suizang pin,” 78.
10.
Sima Qian
, Shiji
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1959), 1:3123.
11. Burton Watson, Rec ords of the Grand Historian (New York: Columbia University Press,
1961), 2:46.
12. Hunan sheng, “Fajue jianbao,” 45.
13. Liji, 8.19a–21b; Legge, Li Chi, 1, 459–463.
14.
An Jinhuai
and Wang Yugang
, “Mixian Dahu Ting Handai huaxiang
shimu he bihua mu”
, WW 10 (1972): 61.
15. Li Wenxin
, “Liaoyang faxian di sanzuo bihua gumu”
,
WWCKZL 5 (1955): 15–42.
16.
Wilma Fairbank, Adventures in Retrieval (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1972), 146–147, 174–178.
17. Henan sheng bowuguan
, “Jiyuan Sijian Hanmu di fajue”
, WW 2 (1973): 47–48.
18. Li Wenxin, “Liaoyang faxian”; Dongbei bowuguan
, “Liaoyang Sandaohao
Liangzuo bihuamu di qingli jianbao”
, WWCKZL 12
(1955): 52–54.
f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e 117
19.
Ôsamu Shinoda
, Chûgoku Tabemono shi
(Tokyo: Shibata shoten,
1974), 49; Huadong wenwu gongzuodui Shandong zu
, “Shan-
dong Yinan Han huaxiang shimu”
, WWCKZL 8 (1954): 41; Zeng
Zhaoyu
, Jiang Baogeng
, and Li Zhongyi
, Yinan gu huaxiang shimu
fajue baogao
(hereafter Fajue baogao) (Beijing: Wenhuabu
wenwu guanliju, 1956), 20–21, pl. 48.
20. Luo Fuyi
, “Nei Menggu zizhiqu Tuoketuo xian xin faxian di Hanmu bihua”
, WWCKZL 9 (1956): 43.
21. Nei Menggu wenwu gongzuodui
, “Helinge-er faxian yizou zhongyao
di Dong Han bihuamu”
, WW 1 (1974): 11; Museum
of Fine Arts, North Kyûshû, “Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo Han- Tang bihuazhan”
(Tokyo: Kitakyûshû Shiritsu Bijutsukan, 1974), pl. 19; Anon-
ymous, Han Tang bihua
(Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1974), pl. 26.
22. He Haotian
, Hanhua yu Handai shehui sheng huo
(Taipei:
Zhonghua, 1958), 96. Jiayu Guan Shi wenwu qingli xiaozu
, “Jiayu
Guan Han huaxiang zhuan mu”
, WW 12 (1972): 40, fi g. 34.
23. Lin Naishen
, “Zhongguo gudai di pengtiao yu yinshi”
,
Beijing daxue xuebao
2 (1957): 136–137.
24. Lunheng, 268.
25. We know that this kind of couch was not uncommon in the Han Period because we fi nd
it not only in the Bangtaizi mural painting (Li Wenxin, “Liaoyang faxian,” 17–18) but
also in a painted brick from Sichuan, though in the latter case the couch has no screens
on the sides. See Chongqing Shi bowuguan, Sichuan Hanmu huaxiang zhuan xuanji
(Beijing: Wenwu Press, 1957), 20. Moreover, the Gaoshi zhuan
also reports that
Guan Ning
of the third century often sat on a wooden couch (quoted in Sanguo zhi
, “Wei zhi”
, 11.27b).
26. Li Wenxin, “Liaoyang faxian,” 30, fi gs. 18–20.
27. Ibid., 27, fi g. 14; Luoyang qu kaogu fajuedui
, Luoyang Shaogou
Hanmu
(Beij
ing: Kexue, 1959), 137–319, fi g. 64, pl. 35.
28. Xu Shen
, Shuowen jiezi
(Hong Kong: Taipei, 1969 edition), 122; Qu Xu-
anying
, Zhongguo shehui shiliao congchao
(Shanghai: Shangwu,
1937), 131.
29. Lao Gan
, “Lun Luxi huaxiang sanshi”
, Bulletin of the Institute of
History and Philology, Academia Sinica 8 (1939): 100.
30. Henan sheng
, “Jiyuan Sijian Hanmu di fajue,” 107–125, pl. 2; Anonymous, Han
Tang bihua, pls. 2, 3.
31. Guo Moruo
, “Luoyang Hanmu bihua shitan”
, KG 2 (1964): 6.
32. SJ, Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang, trans., Rec ords of the Historian (Hong Kong: Commer-
cial Press, 1974), 218–219.
33. Ibid., 361. According to HS, 52.4b, however, the marquis of Gai faced north.
34. Shang Binghe
, Lidai shehui fengsu shiwu kao
(hereafter
Shiwu kao) (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1938), 283–284.
35.
Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, pl. 58, fi gs. 3, 4.
118 f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e
36. Jia Yi
, Xinshu
(Shanghai: Shangwu, 1937 edition), 4, 41.
37. Jiayu Guan Shi, “Jiayu Guan . . . zhuan mu,” 25, pl. 7, fi g. 1, and fi g. 34 on p. 40.
38. Jinan shi bowuguan
, “Shitan Jinan Wuying Shan chutu di Xi Han yuewu
zaji yanyin taoyong”
, WW 5 (1972): 19–24.
39. Yan Kejun
, QSW (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1958), 705–706, 769.
40. These are based on many literary pieces collected in QSW, 238, 403, 623, 624, 644,
706, 713, 714, 768, 775, 827, 963, 975, 976.
41.
Ge Hong
, Xi jing zaji
, Han Wei congshu
(1937 edition), 4,
4a–5b.
42. QSW, 775.
43. Guo Maoqian
, ed., Yuefu shiji
, vol. 2 (Beijing: Wenxue guji, 1955 edition),
juan 37: 2.
44. Liu Xi
, Shiming
(Shanghai: Shangwu, 1939), 66.
45. Shi Shenghan
, Qimin Yaoshu jinshi
(Beijing: Kexue, 1958),
460–462.
46. Zhongguo kaogu yanjiusuo
, “Mancheng Hanmu fajue jiyao”
, KG 1 (1972): 14.
47. QSW, 872.
48. See also Shi Shenghan, Qimin Yaoshu gailun
(Beijing: Kexue, 1962), 81.
49. Yili, WYWK (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1933), 89.
50. QSW, 680.
51. Guo Maoqian, Yuefu shiji, juan 37: 1b.
52. QSW, 780.
53.
Lunheng, 451.
54. QSW, 706.
55.
Ibid., 676.
56. Translated by C. Martin Wilbur in Slavery in China During the Former Han Dynasty, 206
b.c. to a.d. 25 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1943), 385, with minor alterations.
57.
Wilbur, Slavery in China, 391n19.
58. Gu Yanwu
, Rizhi lu
, WYWK (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1929), 3, 55–57.
59. Lü Simian
, Liang Jin Nanbeichao shi
(Shanghai: Shangwu, 1948),
2:1136–1137.
60. See, e.g., Qi Sihe
, “Mao Shi gu ming kao”
, Yenching Journal of Chi-
nese Studies 36 (1949): 266–269.
61.
Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, 112–113, table 26.
62. Nakao Sasuke
, “Henan sheng Luoyang Hanmu chutu di daomi”
, KG 4 (1957): 79–82.
63. Huang Shibin
, “Luoyang Jin- guyuan cun Hanmu zhong chutu you wenzi di
taoqi”
, Kaogu tongxun
1 (1958): 36–41.
64. Shi Shenghan
, On “Fan Sheng- chih Shu
”: An Agriculturalist’ s Book of
China Written by Fan Sheng- chih in the First Century b.c. (Beijing: Science Press, 1959),
8–11.
65. Ibid., 42–44.
f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e 119
66. Qi Sihe, “Mao Shi gu ming kao,” 304–305.
67. Liu Wendian
, annotator, Huainan Honglie jijie
(Taipei: Shangwu,
1974), 4, 10a.
68. Changjiang . . . xunlian ban
. . .
, “Hubei Jiangling Fenghuang Shan
Xi- Han-mu fajue jianbao”
, WW 6 (1974): 41–54.
69. Huang Shengzhang
, “Jiangling Fenghuang Shan Hanmu jiantu yu qi zai lishi
dili yanjiu shang di jiazhi”
, WW 6
(1974): 76–77.
70. Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, 112–113.
71.
Huan Kuan
, Yantielun
(Shanghai: Renmin, 1974), 41; for Baoqiu Zi, see
Wang Peizheng
, Yantielun zhaji
(Beijing: Shangwu, 1958), 65.
72. Nancy Swann, trans., Food and Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of
China to a.d. 25 (Prince ton: Prince ton University Press, 1950), 419.
73. Huan Kuan, Yantielun, 41.
74. Shi Shenghan, On “Fan Sheng- chih Shu,” 19–21.
75. Lunheng, 131.
76. Normally the price of one hu of unhusked grain was around one hundred coins only.
See Lao Gan
, Juyan Hanjian kaoshi
(Taipei: Institute of History and
Philology, Academia Sinica, 1960), 58–59.
77. Lien- sheng Yang, Studies in Chinese Institutional History (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1961), 154.
78. See Zhang Yan’s
commentary to the Shiji, 1:130, 5a.
79. Liji, 8.22a.
80. Lunheng, 221.
81.
Ying Shao
, Fengsu tongyi
, Han Wei congshu (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1937
edition), 9:5a–6a; QSW, 543–544.
82. Lü Simian, Qin Han shi
(Shanghai: Shangwu, 1947), 571–572.
83. Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, 140–142; Guangzhou shi wenwu guanli weiyua-
nhui
, “Guangzhou shi wenguanhui 1955 nian qingli gumu zang
gongzuo jianbao”
1955
, WWCKZL 1 (1957): 74;
Guizhou sheng bowuguan
, “Guizhou Qianxi xian Hanmu fajue jianbao”
, WW 11 (1972): 44.
84. Cui Shi
, Simin yueling
(Beijing: Zhonghua, 1965), 74–76.
85. Shang Binghe, Shiwu kao, 105.
86. Chen Qiyou
, Hanfeizi jishi
(Hong Kong: Zhonghua, 1974), 2:1041.
87. Shi Shenghan, On “Fan Sheng- chih Shu,” 38–39.
88. Yan Shigu’s
commentary in HS, 62, 4a; Wang Niansun
, Guangya shu-
zheng
, CSJC (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1939), 7:1170.
89. On this green house, see Jiang Mingchuan
, Zhongguo di jiu cai
(Beijing: Caizheng jingji, 1956), 14.
90. Cui Shi, Simin yueling, 13–15.
91.
Shi Shenghan, On “Fan Sheng- chih Shu,” 24–27, 40–41.
92. Wang Niansun, Guangya shuzheng, 6:935–936.
120 f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e
93. Qi Sihe, “Mao Shi gu ming kao,” 293.
94. Ying Shao
, “Han Guanyi”
, in Han Guan Qizhong
,
compiled by
Sun Xingyan
(Taipei: Zhonghua, 1962), 1:35b.
95. Cui Shi, Simin yueling, 43.
96. Zhongguo kaogu yanjiusuo, Kaoguxue jizhu
(Beijing: Kexue, 1958), 133; C. S.
Wang Zhongshu
, “Handai wuzhi wenhua lüeshuo”
, Kaogu
tongxun 1 (1956): 71.
97. Ying- shih Yü, Trade and Expansion in Han China (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1967), 24.
98. KG (1972), 41.
99. Hunan sheng bowuguan, Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (1973), En glish abstract, 5.
100. Chang Kwang- chih, “Food and Food Vessels in Ancient China,” Transactions of the New
York Acad emy of Sciences 35 (1973):509–510.
101. Hunan sheng bowuguan, Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (1973), 76–96; ibid. (1974), 44–45.
102. WW 5 (1972): 67.
103. Wang Zhenduo
, “Zai lun Handai jiuzun”
WW 11 (1963): 1–12.
104. Ibid., 13–15; Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, 149.
105. Lao Gan, “Lun Luxi huaxiang sanshi,” 99.
106. QSW, 536.
107. Liu Xiang
, Shuo Yuan
, Han Wei congshu (Taipei: Yiwen yinshu guan, 1967
edition), juan 20: 13a.
108. Hunan sheng bowuguan, Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (1973), 124–125; Shandong sheng
wenwu guanli weiyuanhui, WWCKZL no. 6 (1955), 86; Mai Yinghao, “Guangzhou
huaqiao xincun Xi Han mu,” KG 2 (1958): 64; Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu,
135.
109. Luoyang qu, Luoyang Shaogou Hanmu, 196; Mai Yinghao, “Guangzhou huaqiao xincun
Xi Han mu,” 68.
110. Zhejiang sheng wenwu guanli weiyuanhui
, “Shaoxing Lizhu di
Hanmu”
, KG 1 (1957): 137.
111.
Kuwabara Jitsuzô
, Zhang Qian xizheng kao
, 2nd ed., trans. Yang
Lian
(Shanghai: Shangwu, 1935), 47–52, 117–127.
112. QSW, 784.
113. Ying- shih Yü, Trade and Expansion in Han China, 196.
114. QSW, 922
115. Cui Shi, Simin yueling, 13, 20, 26, 41, 46, 56.
116. QSW, 784.
117. Ibid., 956.
118. Shi Shenghan, Qimin Yaoshu gailun, 86.
119. ZZ, Zhao gong ershinian
, online text: Shisan jing zhushu edition of Chunqiu
Zuozhuan Zhengyi,
-
.txt, p. 1047; Zhou Mi
, Qidong yeyu
, CSJC (Shanghai: Shangwu, 1959 edition), 2, 115.
120. Wang Guowei
, commentator, Jiao Songjiang ben Jijiu pian
, in
Wang Zhongque Gong yishu
(1929 edition), 10b; Shen Yuan
, “Jijiu
pian yanjiu”
, LSYJ 3 (1962): 66.
f o od in c h ine s e c ul t ur e 121
121. Hunan sheng bowuguan, Mawangdui yihao Hanmu (1973), 127, 138.