151: Clinical neurologist L. Illis: Otten, 195–199.
152: cases that link Garnier: Baring-Gould.
153: “Mr. Daniel d’Ange”: Frank Hamel, Human Animals (New York: Frederick Stokes Publishing, 1977).
155: groups of armed hunters: Smith.
Chapter 21: Other Contenders: Prehistoric and Exotic Species
159: various carnivore species: The reader who wishes to expand his or her knowledge on the biology and natural history of the species covered here is strongly invited to read the following consulted sources:
• V.G. Heptner and N.P. Naumov, eds., Mammals of the Soviet Union, 3 vols. (Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola Publishers, trans. and published for the Smithsonian Institution Libraries, pursuant to an agreement with the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., by Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. 1961; reprint, New Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 1988).
• Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier, Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 1, Carnivores (Barcelona: Lynx Editions, 2009).
• Luke Hunter, A Field Guide to the Carnivores of the World (London: New Holland Publishers, 2011).
• Jonathan Kingdon, Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (London: Christopher Helm, 2003).
• Richard D. Estes and Daniel Otte, The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, and Primates (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).
• Bjorn Kurten, Pleistocene Mammals of Europe (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 2009).
• “Hyena Specialist Group,” International Union for Conservation of Nature, www.hyaenidae.org.
• “Cat Specialist Group,” Species Survival Commission, International Union for Conservation of Nature, www.catsg.org.
160: a wolf-dog version of the snow leopard: According to researcher Laura Wilkinson (personal communication with author Sánchez).
163: Hundepanzer: Robert C. Woosnam-Savage, Brassey’s Book of Body Armor (Herndon, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2002).
168: The cave leopard: Darren Naish, “Tetrapod Zoology,” Science Blogs, March 12, 2008, http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/03/12/european-cats-part-i/.
168: Indian leopard: Ronald M. Nowak and John L. Paradiso, Walker’s Mammals of the World, 4th ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1983).
168: Jim Corbett: Jerry A. Jaleel, Under the Shadow of Man-eaters: The Life and Legend of Jim Corbett of Kumaon. (London: Orient Longman, 2001).
169: “believed to be a leopard”: Smith.
170: “a leopard probably prowled the hills around Langogne.”: Ibid.
170: leopards were used for hunting: Gaston Phébus, Le livre de chasse (The Book of the Hunt) (1389), “Le livre de chasse per Gaston Phébus,” Bibliothèque nationale de France, http://expositions.bnf.fr/phebus/. “There are several species of wild cats: specifically, some are as big as leopards, and are sometimes called lynx and sometimes wolf-cats; and this is incorrect, as they are neither lynxes nor wolf-cats. They should rather be called leopard-cats than anything else, as they have more in common with the leopard than with any other animal. They eat what other cats do, except they catch chickens and geese and a goat or a ewe, if they can find such on their own, because they are as big as a wolf and also have the shape of a leopard, except they do not have so long a tail; a greyhound alone could not engage one of these cats and detain him; it would rather take a wolf than a cat, because they have nails like a leopard’s and, moreover, a very bad bite. They are seldom hunted unless by mistake.” The term wolf-cat (in French chat-loups) could refer to species from the big cat family, such as lions or tigers (and possibly also to lesser known species), or perhaps was used to identify such a creature(unknown to most people in France in the eighteenth century) when seen for the first time. Phébus also speaks of wolves and how—when the predators are old, weak, and have lost their teeth—they might attack humans; how wolves might also consume corpses in times of war, the bodies of criminals fallen from the gallows, etc. Sánchez.
170: Big cats (especially leopards) were trophy animals: 16 “Factsheet: The Royal Menagerie at the Tower of London,” Historic Royal Palaces Enterprises Ltd., http://www.hrp.org.uk/Resources/The%20Royal%20Menagerie.pdf: Dating from the reign of King John (1199–1216), the former Royal Menagerie in London operated for more than six hundred years until its closure in the 1830s. Animals acquired included numbers of big cats for its Lion Tower. In 1235, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II sent three leopards to Henry III, a tribute to the Plantagenet coat of arms, a trio of lions. The Menagerie was opened to the public in Elizabethan times and became quite popular. In June 1704, its collection was said to include six lions, two leopards or tigers, two “Cats of the Mountains,” a jackal, three eagles, and two Swedish owls “of great bigness.” A 1741 guide listed many animals by name: lions Marco and Phillis and their son Nero; two lionesses, Jenny and Nanny; Will, a leopard; Jenny, a panther; and two tigers, Will and Phillis, and their son Dick. (Other creatures included a raccoon, a porcupine, vultures, eagles, an ape, and a warwoven, a bird from the East Indies.) Eighty years later, the Menagerie consisted of four lions, a tiger, a leopard, a panther, and a grizzly bear. In 1831 and 1832, animals belonging to the Crown were transferred to Zoological Society of London facilities in Regent’s Park; the rest were purchased by an American showman.
174: The cats also had bad teeth: “La Bête du Gévaudan.eu: Histoire et Enquête” (“The Beast of Gévaudan: History and Investigation”), http://www.labetedugevaudan.eu/.
174: “Was he not fighting with a lion?”: J. H. Patterson, The Man-Eaters of Tsavo and Other East-African Adventures (London: Macmillan and Co., Limited, 1952), 22.
175: The Marquis de Lafayette: Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1989), 26.
176: archaic humans and giant hyenas: M. Patrocinio-Espigares, B. Martínez-Navarro, P. Palmqvist, S. Ros-Montoya, I. Toro, J. Agustí, R. Sala, “Homo vs. Pachycrocuta: earliest evidence of competition for an elephant carcass between scavengers at Fuente Nueva-3 (Orce, Spain),” Quaternary International 295 (2013), 113–125.
180: Striped hyenas rarely attack: Craig Howard, “Hyaena hyaena, Striped Hyena,” Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Hyaena_hyaena/.
180: hyenas attacking humans: Heptner and Naumov.
181: located a museum-published pamphlet dating to 1819: Franz Jullien, “La deuxième mort de la Bête du Gévaudan,” dans l’Ombre de la Bête, labetedugevaudan.com/pdf/deuxieme_mort_franz.pdf
183: key factors in Jullien’s hypothesis: Ibid.
183: Folklorist and French researcher Michel Meurger suggests: “The Beast of Gévaudan Identified?” Virtual Institute of Cryptozoology, http://cryptozoo.sperso-orange.fr/actualit/1997/hyenegev.htm
184: “According to local lore”: Smith.
184: Chastel’s hyena/Beast: Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de[count]) (1707–1788), intendant of the royal botanical garden (Jardin du Roi, King’s Garden), also cataloged the natural history collections, an undertaking that led to the compilation of his exhaustive Natural History (Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière). He planned the History to include fifty volumes; he published thirty-six before he died. The Beast is not mentioned in Garden records of acquisitions. And, as far as is known, Buffon never directly referred to the Beast, although journalist Frédéric Melchior, also known as Baron von Grimm, reported in the April 1765 Correspondance Litteraire (406–407) that Buffon, reacting to the reports of the Gazette de France, believed the Beast was several large wolves (as in antiquity, the labors said to be those of Hercules were in reality the feats of several heroes), which would “disappear in the return of summer.”
185: portraits of animals: Morton.
188: Became extinct: 9 Bermudo Meléndez, Mamíferos (Part 1), Book 3, Vol. 1, Tratado de Paleontología (Madrid: Editorial Paraninfo, 1990).
Chapter 22: What of
Wolves and Hybrids?
191: forty degrees below zero: Barry Holstun Lopez, Of Wolves and Men (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978), 19.
191: “wolves hunt”: David L. Mech, The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970), 196.
191: a female gray wolf: Associated Press, “Wolf travels hundred of miles to northern Arizona,” Rapid City Journal, November 23, 2014, http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/latest/wolf-travels-hundreds-of-miles-to-northern-arizona/article_b4de25e8-d7d1-52df-9ec2-fb82a3fd10c0.html.
191: The animal was killed months later: Associated Press, “Wolf killed in Utah was from rare Arizona sighting,” Rapid City Journal, February 11, 2015, http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/latest/wolf-killed-in-utah-was-animal-from-rare-arizona-sighting/article_4ec7ce7b-fe63-5bbb-b85b-0da8700cfe9e.html
192: Optimal prey for wolves: Mech, 196, 237, 217.
192: carnassials, or “shearing teeth”: Hampton, 15.
192: corpses of the English vanquished: James Edmund Harting, Extinct British Animals or British Animals Extinct within Historic Times (Buckinghamshire: Paul P. B. Minet, 1972), 133–134.
192: Centuries later, in the New World: Hampton, 54, 55, 58.
192: wolf-free islands off the coast: Harting, 182, 183.
192: “less of a threat to humans”: Hampton, 56. In ancient Japan, farmers revered the wolf, the “Large-Mouthed Pure God,” for protecting their fields and crops from deer, boars, and rodents. Brett L. Walker, The Lost Wolves of Japan (Seattle, Washington, and London: University of Seattle Press, 2005), 9.
192: “conversation of death”: Lopez, 62, 94–95.
193: certain organs and parts: Pourcher, Éditions Jeanne Laf-fitte, 20.
193: a wolf pack cooperates: Stahler, Smith, and Guernsey.
193: “lobo wolves”: Stanley Young, The Last of the Loners (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1970).
194: “gummers”: Ibid., 279.
194: easier-to-chew portions: Ibid., 283–284.
194: A letter from a grateful stockman: Ibid., 223.
194: Custer Wolf: Ibid., 297–304.
194: “coming together of science and folklore”: Jon T. Coleman, Vicious: Wolves and Men in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 205.
194: ranchers raised longhorns: Gipson and Ballard, 735.
195: scientists studied famous wolves: Philip S. Gipson, and Warren B. Ballard, “Accounts of Famous North American Wolves,” The Canadian Field-Naturalist, Vol. 112, Issue 4 (1998): 724–739. Philip S. Gipson, Warren B. Ballard, and Ronald M. Nowak, “Famous North American Wolves and the Credibility of Early Wildlife Literature,” Wildlife Society Bulletin, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Winter 1998): 808–816.
195: “partially severed trachea”: Hampton, 11.
196: a suspiciously large, three-toed wolf: Ibid., 736.
197: “surplus kills”: Ibid., 737. The Beast bobtailed a sheep: Pourcher, AuthorHouse, 220; Éditions Jeanne Laffitte, 168.
197: wolf-dog hybrids: Ibid.
197: these types of animals: Gipson, Ballard, and Nowak, 808–816.
197: “attributions of kills to the wrong predator species”: Ibid.
197: “hybrid vigor”: Clarke, 71–72.
198: service animals: Hampton, 26.
198: hybrid incident: Ernest Thompson Seton, The Coyote, Vol. 1, Life IX, Lives of Game Animals (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1929), 401–402.
199: “undoubtedly somewhat warped”: Thompson, 81.
199: Lupine predations: Harting, 144.
199: Hospitals: Ibid., 124–125.
199: “vast tracts of forest and moor”: Ibid., 158.
200: Cromwell: Ibid., 204.
200: “If the he-wolf doesn’t get you, the she-wolf will.”: Robb, 91.
200: sharecropper: Devlin, 75.
200: indicative of clashes: Jean-Marc Moriceau, interview by Jacques Rochefort, Mission Agrobiosciences, www.montpellier-agglo.com, 2008, http://www.agrobiosciences.org/article.php3?id_article=2415:)
200: Gabalitan: Thompson, 31. Clarke, 68.
200: “twilight herding”: Clarke, 68.
Chapter 23: Two Dead Beasts
202: de Beauterne: According to Barnson, de Beauterne was added to Robert-François’s name, and not, as other historians believe, to the name of his father. The lands de Beauterne or of Beauterne were in Robert-François’s future wife’s dowry. He began using the name before he officially acquired it through marriage, essentially to avoid confusion with his father.
203: Speculative similarities: Smith.
204: summary of the reactions: Pourcher, AuthorHouse.
204: William Cole: William Cole, A Journal of My Journey to Paris in the Year 1765 (London: F. G. Stokes, 1931).
204: “exceedingly large wolf”: Horace Walpole, The Letters of Horace Walpole, Vol. 3, 1759–1769 (electronic version, Project Gutenberg, 2003), http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4773/pg4773-images.html.
204: The king reacted: Smith.
207: Based on the weights recorded: François de Beaufort, Le loup en France (Paris, France: Société française pour l’étude et la protection des mammifères, 1987).
207: Average measurements and weights: Luke Hunter, A Field Guide to the Carnivores of the World (London: New Holland Publishers, 2011).
207: maximum “average” sizes: Don E. Wilson and Russell A. Mittermeier, Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol. 1, Carnivores (Barcelona: Lynx Editions, 2009).
207: an exceptionally large wolf: Geneviève Carbone, La peur du loup (Paris: Gallimard, 1991).
207: international researchers: Barnson, personal communication with author Sánchez: “The veterinarian I saw (in 2007) and asked to take a look at the report by maître Marin, told me that in his mind it was clearly a hybrid wolf and eastern dog, like the Leonberg, the Kangal, or other tough mastiff dogs … because of the measurements, and because of the fur, thick and quite long for a ‘simple wolf.’”
207: morphological aspects: Stephen Spotte, Societies of Wolves and Free-ranging Dogs (Cambridge University Press, 2012): “The name Canis lycaon was given by von Schreber to a live specimen captured as a pup in Quebec, kept chained for a time, and eventually taken alive to Paris by a French naval officer … There it was seen by the renowned naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, who published a description and illustration of a black wolf in 1761. What became of its remains is unknown. All physical traces have disappeared. Which is unfortunate because a tiny sample of skin might resolve much of the controversy discussed above. According to Buffon this animal was smaller than the European gray wolf, with larger ears. Its tail was also less bushy. A specimen observed by R. I. Pocock, an expert at the British Museum of Natural History, labeled Canis lycaon, N. America, similar to Buffon’s and pointing out that its pelt was black too, the attendant skull short, and the teeth small for an ordinary wolf. The pelt had a white patch on the breast, a character that in later gray wolf x domestic dog admixing experiments would be attributed to dog genes. Over several years the Russian geneticist N. A. Iljin produced four generations’ captive wolf-dogs through selective breeding and recorded their characters. Many had white markings that he suspected were derived from dogs, but wrote, ‘However, the presence of the genes in wolves is also possible, since naturalists have sometimes (though rarely) recorded wolves with white spots on the chest.’ An early Pennsylvania pioneer noted that wolves will intermix with dogs mentioning ‘an old she-wolf [that came] into the settlement [to] entice away a number of dogs.’ Of her six admixed pups, ‘Two of them had spots on them exactly like one of the dogs.’” Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.
207: Such specimens may result: Ibid. “Pliny reported how the Gauls tied estrous dogs to trees so they might mate with wolves … Evidently this technique strikes a universal chord. Early explorers wrote that Eskimos occasionally staked out sled dogs in heat hoping wolves would mate with them, thereby enhancing the hardin
ess of their breed … To quote Glover M. Allen: ‘There is much evidence, though of a somewhat uncertain character, that wild male Wolves will breed with female Eskimo Dogs at proper seasons, and the northern Indians are said to encourage such occasional crosses.’” Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.
208: Female and male wolves: Ibid.
209: The animal shows clear characteristics: Ibid. “Coydogs produced by Lee R. Dice had wider muzzles and shorter faces than coyotes, their skulls broader and ears typically lopped instead of erect like a coyote’s … The coat might mimic the parent dog’s in being spotted or mottled with shorter hair. All are phenotypic characters of domestication … Offspring of eastern coyote x purebred dog crosses looked like lop-eared mongrel dogs … This is not surprising because coat color, coat pattern, and morphology of wolf dogs render them easily mistaken for mongrel dogs too. Domestication, whether through admixing or captive breeding of wild canids selected for tameness, eventually results in distinctive, predictable changes in morphology. Foremost are shortening and broadening of the snout and palate causing crowding of the teeth and a reduction in tooth size, a steeply rising forehead and wider posterior cranial vault, and differences in the position and angle of the orbits. These features are used in attempts to distinguish fossil dogs from fossil wolves. A kink tail or tail that is curled forward, lopped ears, and color or pattern of the coat are other indicators of domestication.” Ibid. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.
211: new evidence: Morell, Virginia, “Evolution: From Wolf to Dog,” Scientific American (July 2015), 60–67.
211: became primitive dogs,: Xiaoming Wang, Richard H. Tedford, and Mauricio Anton, Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History (Columbia University Press, 2010).
211: Anthropology professor Pat Shipman: Pat Shipman, The Invaders: How Humans and Their Dogs Drove Neanderthals to Extinction (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Bellknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2015).
212: retained natural instincts and behaviors: Robert A. Willems, DVM, “The Wolf-Dog Hybrid, An Overview of a Controversial Animal” (US Department of Agriculture/National Agricultural Library Animal Welfare Information Center Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 4, Winter 1994/1995), https://archive.org/stream/CAT10401495018/CAT10401495018_djvu.txt.
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