The earliest formulations regarding the Vedic language as a natural language are found in the Vedic texts themselves. In this chapter I will begin with a brief analysis of Vedic perspectives on mantras that provide the historical and conceptual foundation for the post-Vedic formulations of Purāṇic and Gauḍīya sources. I will then turn to a consideration of Purāṇic traditions and will focus more specifically on constructions of mantra and nāman in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Finally, I will provide an extended analysis of the contributions of the early Gauḍīya authorities, who appropriate and recast Vedic and Purāṇic formulations by ascribing divine names a central role in the multileveled ontology that is integral to the Gauḍīya discourse of embodiment. As we shall see, on the transcosmic level beyond the material realm of prakṛti, the name of Kṛṣṇa is celebrated as nondifferent from his essence (svarūpa) and absolute body (vigraha), while on the material level this singular transcendent name is represented as assuming manifold forms as nāma-avatāras, avatāras in the form of names, which function as mesocosmic sound-embodiments through which human beings can engage the divine presence on the gross material plane.
Transcendent Vibrations, Primordial Utterances, and Meditation Devices: Vedic Perspectives on Mantras
The term mantra is used in Vedic texts to refer to the versified portions of the four Vedic Saṃhitās, as distinct from the Brāhmaṇa and Upaniṣadic portions of the Veda: the ṛcs of the Ṛg-Veda Saṃhitā, yajuses of the Yajur-Veda Saṃhitās, sāmans of the Sāma-Veda Saṃhitā, and atharvans of the Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā.4 The earliest references to the Vedic mantras in Vedic texts generally focus on those mantras that are allotted a central role in the sacrificial rituals: ṛcs, yajuses, and sāmans, which are designated as the “threefold knowledge” (trayī vidyā) or the “threefold Veda” (traya veda) in the Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads. This emphasis on the “threefold knowledge” of the Ṛg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Sāma-Veda suggests that it took some time before the atharvans of the Atharva-Veda were accorded an equivalent status as forming part of the “four Vedas” (catur veda).5
In this section I will provide a brief analysis of three distinct constructions of Vedic mantras in different discursive environments that are important for understanding the formulations of mantra and nāman found in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and Gauḍīya sources: (1) the epistemology of cognition of the Vedic mantras in the Ṛg-Veda Saṃhitā; (2) the cosmogonic function of the Vedic mantras in the Brāhmaṇas’ discourse of sacrifice; and (3) the soteriological function of root mantras such as Om in the Upaniṣads’ discourse of knowledge.
Cognition of the Vedic Mantras
Jan Gonda, on the basis of his analysis of the term mantra in Vedic texts, gives the following definition of the term:
[W]ord(s) believed to be of “superhuman origin,” received, fashioned and spoken by the “inspired” seers, poets and reciters in order to evoke divine power(s) and especially conceived as means of creating, conveying, concentrating and realizing intentional and efficient thought, and of coming into touch or identifying oneself with the essence of the divinity which is present in the mantra.6
Gonda’s characterization of mantras as words that are ascribed a “superhuman origin” and that are held to have been “received, fashioned and spoken by the ‘inspired’ seers” provides a useful starting-point for exploring the nature of mantras in the Ṛg-Veda Saṃhitā (c. 1500–1200 BCE). As I have argued elsewhere, the process of cognition of the Vedic mantras is represented by the ṛṣis (seers) themselves in the Ṛg-Veda as occurring in two phases: in the first phase the ṛṣi “receives” the mantra as a divinely inspired cognition, and in the second phase he “fashions” the mantra into well-articulated words that he “speaks,” utters forth, in the form of a recited hymn.7
In the first phase of the process of Vedic cognition, the ṛṣis of the Ṛg-Veda portray themselves as practicing meditative tapas8 and thereby establishing their awareness in the heart (hṛd or hṛdaya), the innermost core of consciousness, where they cognize with their “mind’s eye” the mantras emerging from the light-filled realm of the gods.9 “The ṛcs (verses) exist in the imperishable (akṣara), beyond space (vyoman), where all the gods abide.”10 The mantras exist in that transcendent, imperishable realm which is beyond vyoman, the subtle element of space that is the finest level of objective material existence. It is there, in the abode of the gods, that the ṛṣis “see” (root dṛś) and “hear” (root śru) the mantras as subtle vibrations of luminous speech arising within their own hearts as “inspired thoughts” (manīṣā or mati) or “visions” (dhī or dhīti).11 The ṛṣis repeatedly praise the gods as the inspirers of their cognitions, which they celebrate as divine (devī or daivya) and god-given (devatta).12 The mantras are held to have been generated (root jan) by the gods and hence are termed deva-kṛta, “made by the gods.”13
O Agni, powerful in nature, when praised unseal for the eulogist the cave, the inspired thought (manīṣā) with the vibration (vepas). Give us, O resplendent one who are very glorious, that mighty thought (manman) which, along with all the gods, you love. From you, O Agni, are generated the qualities of the seers (kavis), from you inspired thoughts (manīṣās), from you effectual recitations (ukthas). From you comes wealth adorned by heroic sons to the devout mortal who possesses true vision (dhī).14
The ṛṣis celebrate the mantras as not only inspired by the gods but also as invested with the living presence of the deities. The gods are said to have made their abode (okas) in the mantras15 and are at times directly identified with the mantras.16 Particular deities are associated more specifically with particular meters, rhythmic configurations of the mantras.17 When the ṛṣis cognize the mantras reverberating forth from the transcendent abode of the gods, they cognize the gods abiding in the mantras, their divine presence invested in the pulsating impulses of speech.
In the second phase of the process of Vedic cognition, the ṛṣis of the Ṛg-Veda represent themselves as fashioning (root takṣ) within the heart their divinely inspired cognitions and giving audible expression to the mantras in well-articulated words as recited hymns. “To him let us proclaim (root vac) this mantra well-fashioned from the heart (hṛd).”18 Having cognized the subtle vibrations of speech rising up within their consciousness as inspired thoughts, the ṛṣis give them vocalized expression on the gross level of speech in the form of recited hymns. “I offer to Agni, the son of power, a new and more powerful inspired hymn (dhīti), thought as realized in speech (vāco mati).”19
The ṛṣis of the Ṛg-Veda thus provide self-referential representations of the mechanisms through which śruti, “that which was heard” in the transcendent depths where the gods abide, was “recorded” through the vehicle of their speech and assumed a concrete form on earth as the recited texts of the Vedic mantras. The ṛṣis, in their role as the conduits through which the vibrating mantras find expression in vocalized speech, sometimes refer to themselves as vipras, from the root vip or vep, “to tremble, shake, vibrate.” Gonda suggests that the term “may originally have denoted a moved, inspired, ecstatic and ‘enthusiast’ seer as a bearer or pronouncer of the emotional and vibrating, metrical sacred words, a seer who converted his inspirations into powerful ‘carmina’ [song].”20
The ṛṣis, having converted the subtle reverberations of the mantras into recited hymns through the agency of their speech, are represented as “sending forth” (root sṛj or root ṛ) the hymns as sound offerings to the gods.21 The Ṛg-Veda repeatedly celebrates the theurgic efficacy of recitation of the Vedic mantras, which serves as a means of nourishing, invigorating, and magnifying the gods by enlivening their divine presence embodied in the mantras.22 The following verses are representative:
He [Indra] who grew (root vṛdh) through the ancient and present-day hymns (gīrs) of lauding ṛṣịs.23
Aśvins, do others than we surround you with lauds (stomas)? The (ṛṣi Vatsa, the son of Kaṇva, has magnified (root vṛdh) you wit
h hymns (gīrs).24
O Soma, we who are skilled in speech (vaco-vid) magnify (root vṛdh) you with hymns (gīrs).25
In the Ṛg-Veda the theurgic efficacy of the Vedic mantras is at times extended beyond the divine realm to encompass the entire cosmos, particularly with reference to the mantras’ role in the primordial yajña, sacrifice, through which the creation is brought forth.26 In Ṛg-Veda 10.90, the Puruṣa-Sūkta, the ṛṣis are portrayed as assisting the gods in the performance of the primordial sacrifice of Puruṣa, which is represented as the paradigmatic cosmos-producing activity by means of which the human, natural, and divine orders are brought forth. From this primordial yajña, which provides the prototype for all future yajñas, the Vedic mantras—ṛcs, sāmans, and yajuses along with the meters—emerge as the sound offerings that are an essential component of the sacrificial ritual.27 In Ṛg-Veda 10.130 the sāmans and meters are explicitly allotted a role in the cosmogonic process as an integral part of the yajña through which the creation is “woven.” Moreover, the primordial yajña performed by the gods is depicted as a divine model that is cognized and reenacted, with lauds (stomas) and meters, by the ancient ṛṣis.28
Vedic Mantras in the Discourse of Sacrifice
The theurgic efficacy ascribed to recitation of the Vedic mantras in the Ṛg-Veda is elaborated at length in the discourse of sacrifice in the Brāhmaṇas (c 900–650 BCE), which emphasizes in particular the cosmogonic function of the mantras. The central figure in this discourse is the Puruṣa Prajāpati, who is celebrated as the supreme god and creator in the Brāhmaṇas and is represented as the primordial ṛṣi who “sees” (root dṛś) the Vedic mantras as well as the sacrificial rituals in which they are used. He then assumes the functions of the various priests in the primordial yajña, reciting the ṛcs, chanting the sāmans, and performing the sacrificial actions with the aid of the yajuses, in order to bring forth creation and structure an ordered cosmos.29 The brahmin priests are represented in the Brāhmaṇas as the earthly counterparts of Prajāpati, who reproduce the cosmogonic activities of the creator every time the sacrificial rituals are performed and the Vedic mantras are recited.30
Just as Prajāpati set the universe in motion by means of a particular yajña, so those who perform the yajña set the universe in motion.31 Just as Prajāpati brought forth all beings by means of the yajña,32 so those who reenact the primordial yajña are ascribed the power to produce beings. “Prajāpati indeed is that sacrifice (yajña) which is being performed here and from which these beings were produced, and in the same manner are they produced thereafter even to the present day.”33 The creative power of the yajña is linked in particular to the recitation of the Vedic mantras that is an integral part of the sacrificial ritual. For example, Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa 1.94 depicts Prajāpati as bringing forth the gods, human beings, ancestors, and other beings through chanting the words of a particular sāman.34 The passage concludes, “Having become Prajāpati, he who knowing thus chants with this opening brings forth beings.”35 Prajāpati is represented as using particular Vedic mantras or sacrificial rituals not only to bring forth creation but also to establish an orderly cosmos through subduing his unruly creatures, providing them with rain and food, and so on. “He who knows thus” and replicates the activities of Prajāpati is correspondingly ascribed the power to obtain comparable ends.36
The Brāhmaṇas, in elaborating on the role of the Vedic mantras as the expressions of the divine speech of the creator Prajāpati, present the earliest formulations of the notion that the Vedas are the archetypal plan at the basis of creation. The realm of concrete phenomena is held to have been brought forth through recitation of the sound impulses contained in the Vedic mantras, and thus the Vedic words are considered the sound correlates of the realm of form, containing the subtle structures of all levels of existence. In this context the three Vedas—Ṛg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Sāma-Veda—are incorporated into the Brāhmaṇas’ discourse of sacrifice as part of a complex taxonomy that, building upon the speculations of the Puruṣa-Sūkta, posits a system of inherent connections (bandhus) among the orders of reality: sacrificial order (adhiyajña), human order (adhyātma), natural order (adhibhūta), and divine order (adhidaiva).37
This taxonomy establishes a series of homologies between the realm of sound, represented by the Vedic mantras that are integral to the sacrificial order, and the realm of form, represented by the human, natural, and divine orders. At the basis of this taxonomic system are the three vyāhṛtis, primordial utterances—bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ—which are the seed-syllables of creation corresponding to the three worlds—earth, midregions, and heavens38—and which are identified, respectively, with the Ṛg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Sāma-Veda, constituting their essences (rasa or śukra).39 Prajāpati is represented as extracting the essences of the three Vedas in the form of the three vyāhṛtis, which are the primordial utterances through which he brings forth the three worlds.
Prajāpati indeed conquered this [universe] by means of the threefold Veda (traya veda).… He reflected, “Let me extract the essence (rasa) of the threefold Veda.”… Saying “bhūḥ,” he extracted the essence of the Ṛg-Veda. That became this earth.… Saying “bhuvaḥ,” he extracted the essence of the Yajur-Veda. That became the midregions.… Saying “svaḥ,” he extracted the essence of the Sāma-Veda. That became yonder heavens.40
In several passages Prajāpati is represented as extracting the three vyāhṛtis by pressing (root pīḍ) the threefold Veda, which is full of rasa, nectar. When he presses the three Vedas—Ṛg-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Sāma-Veda—the three vyāhṛtis—bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ—stream forth as their essences.41 The process culminates in Prajāpati pressing the three vyāhṛtis, from which he extracts the essence of the essences: the syllable (akṣara) Om.
He pressed (root pīḍ + abhi) the threefold Veda (trayī vidyā). From it being pressed the essence (rasa) streamed forth. That became these vyāhṛtis, bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ. He pressed these vyāhṛtis. From them being pressed the essence (rasa) streamed forth. That became this syllable (akṣara), Om.42
When the nectar of the threefold Veda has been fully pressed out, it yields the root mantra Om, which is celebrated in the Brāhmaṇas as the most concentrated essence of the threefold Veda that cannot be further pressed.43
Implicit in the taxonomic schema of the Brāhmaṇas, as well as in the more general Vedic conception of the creative power of the divine speech, is the notion that in the Vedic mantras an intrinsic relation exists between the name (nāman) and the form (rūpa) that it signifies.44 In this conception bhūḥ is not simply a conventional designation, it is the natural name of the earth, and thus it is the sound correlate that contains within it the subtle essence and structure of the earth. The primordial utterances bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ are like potent seeds containing the tree of creation about to sprout. These three seed-syllables are in turn elaborated in the three Vedas, the detailed cosmic plan from which the entire creation unfolds.
Root Mantras in the Discourse of Knowledge
In the Upaniṣads (c 800 BCE–200 CE), the epistemological framework shifts from the discourse of sacrifice, yajña, to the discourse of knowledge, jñāna, and the creation-maintaining rituals of the Brāhmaṇas are displaced by meditation (dhyāna) and ascetic disciplines (tapas) aimed at realizing the ultimate reality, Brahman-Ātman, and attaining liberation (mokṣa) from the bondage of the relative creation. While the priestly exponents of the discourse of sacrifice emphasize the theurgic efficacy of recitation (adhyayana) of the Vedic mantras as a means of constructing and maintaining the cosmic order, the Upaniṣadic exponents of the discourse of knowledge emphasize the need to transcend the recited texts through meditation (dhyāna) and gain direct experiential realization of the transcendent reality of Veda as that undifferentiated knowledge which is the very fabric of the imperishable Brahman.45 Knowledge of the mundane Vedic texts is relegated to a subsidiary position as a lower form of knowledge (aparā
vidyā) than that supreme knowledge (parā vidyā) by means of which the imperishable (akṣara) is apprehended.46
The Upaniṣadic sages’ discursive reshaping results in a twofold transformation of Vedic constructions of mantra. First, primary emphasis is given to root mantras, seed-syllables such as Om, which are represented as the most fundamental and powerful elements of the primordial Vedic language. Second, the use of these root mantras is shifted from a sacrificial to a meditative context, and the mantras themselves are transformed from efficacious ritual utterances into potent meditation devices that are ascribed a critical soteriological function in the discourse of jñāna, knowledge.
Om is identified in several Upaniṣadic passages with Brahman47 and is designated more specifically as Śabdabrahman, Brahman embodied in sound.48 A passage in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, recapitulating the Brāhmaṇas’ taxonomic schema, represents Om as the essence of the three vyāhṛtis, which in turn are the essences of the three Vedas. As the most concentrated essence of the Vedas, Om is celebrated as the primordial vibration that is the basis of all speech (vāc) and the basis of the entire creation.49 It is this quintessential mantra that, as the sound-form of Brahman, is to be used as a vehicle in meditation in order to attain the supreme Brahman that is beyond sound.
There are indeed two Brahmans to be meditated (root dhyā + abhi) upon: sound (śabda) and the soundless (aśabda). By sound alone is the soundless known. In this case the sound is Om. Ascending upward by means of it, one becomes established in the soundless. This is the goal (gati). This is immortality (amṛta). This is the state of union (sāyujyatva) and bliss (nirvṛtatva). As a spider ascending upward by means of its thread attains a place, in the same way the meditator, ascending upward by means of Om, attains freedom (svātantrya).… There are two Brahmans to be known: Śabdabrahman and that which is supreme (para). One who is immersed in Śabdabrahman attains the supreme Brahman.50
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