by Allan Brandt
54 Neil Harris, “The Drama of Consumer Desire,” in Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures, eds. Otto Mayr and Robert C. Post (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1981), 189-230.
55 Patrick G. Porter, “Advertising in the Early Cigarette Industry: W. Duke, Sons & Company of Durham,” North Carolina Historical Review 69, no. 1 (1971): 31-43; Tilley, 558-559; Roberts, 264-266; and Tate, 25.
56 Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Robert Jay, The Trade Card in Nineteenth-Century America (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1987); Paul Martin, Popular Collecting and the Everyday Self: The Reinvention of Museums? (New York: Leicester University Press, 1999); and Stephen H. Riggins, ed., The Socialness of Things: Essays on the Socio-Semiotics of Objects (New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994).
57 “Prizes for Ill-Doing,” New York Times, December 25, 1888.
58 Porter, 39.
59 Neil H. Borden, “The Effect of Advertising on the Demand for Tobacco Products—Cigarettes,” The Economic Effects of Advertising (Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, 1944), 207-249.
60 Porter, 41.
61 McGraw, 1-24; and Tennant, 24-25.
62 Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., “American Tobacco: Managing Mass Production and Distribution of Packaged Products,” in The Visible Hand (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1977), 382-390; and Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
63 Lamoreaux, 157.
64 Durden, 56.
65 Malcolm R. Burns, “Economics of Scale in Tobacco Manufacture, 1897-1910,” Journal of Economic History 43, no. 2 (1983): 465-466.
66 Chandler, 382.
67 Ibid., 390.
68 Tracy Campbell, The Politics of Despair: Power and Resistance in the Tobacco Wars (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993).
69 Chandler, 386.
70 Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
71 Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967).
72 Durden, 73.
73 Ibid., 74.
74 James A. Thomas, Trailing Trade a Million Miles (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1931); Durden, 77-80; and Tennant, 32.
75 Lamoreaux, 182.
76 Chandler, 389-390; Patricia A. Cooper, Once a Cigar Maker: Men, Woman, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900-1919 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987).
77 Lamoreaux, 182; and Tennant, 28-37.
78 Tennant, 39.
79 Albert Charles Muhse, “The Disintegration of the Tobacco Combination,” Political Science Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1913): 249-278.
80 Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 25-26.
81 Lamoreaux, 159.
82 Ibid.
83 McGraw, 38.
84 U.S. Supreme Court, U.S. v. American Tobacco Co., 221 U.S. 106, 182 (1911).
85 Keller.
86 Muhse, 276; and William H. Nicholls, Price Policies in the Cigarette Industry (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1951).
87 Tennant, 64. See also Maurice Corina, Trust in Tobacco: The Anglo-American Struggle for Power (New York: St. Martin’s, 1975), 128.
88 Louis D. Brandeis, “An Illegal Trust Legalized,” World To-Day (1911): 1440-1441.
89 Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly: A Study in Economic Ambivalence (New York: Fordham University Press, 1966).
90 “III: Cigarettes,” Fortune, June 1935, 68.
91 Centers for Disease Control, “Total and Per Capita Manufactured Cigarette Consumption and Percentage Change in Per Capita Consumption—United States, United States Department of Agriculture, 1900-1995,” http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/research_data/economics/consump1.htm.
Chapter 2
1 From a poster, described in Gordon L. Dillow, “The Hundred-Year War Against the Cigarette,” American Heritage Magazine, February-March 1981, 103.
2 Nannie M. Tilley, The R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 223.
3 “Fighting the Tobacco Trust,” New York Times, March 17, 1893.
4 Robert Sobel, They Satisfy: The Cigarette in American Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1978), 144; Jack S. Blocker, Alcohol, Reform, and Society: The Liquor Issue in Social Context (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979); and Thomas R. Pegram, Battling Demon Rum: The Struggle for a Dry America, 1800-1933 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1998).
5 Allan M. Brandt and Paul Rozin, eds., Morality and Health (New York: Routledge, 1997); and James A. Morone. Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).
6 Neil Harris, “The Drama of Consumer Desire,” in Yankee Enterprise: The Rise of the American System of Manufactures, eds. Otto Mayr and Robert C. Post (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1981), 191.
7 See T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981).
8 Vida Milholland, “Tobacco: An Enemy of American Progress,” reprint of a radio address (New York: Radio Station WHAP, [after 1926?]), p. 3, from the Harvey Washington Wiley Papers, ca. 1854-1944, Library of Congress.
9 Editorial, New York Times, January 29, 1884.
10 Cassandra Tate, Cigarette Wars: The Triumph of “the Little White Slaver” (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 39.
11 Milholland, “Tobacco: An Enemy of American Progress,” p. 6. See Henry Ford, The Case Against the Little White Slaver, vols. I-IV (Detroit: Henry Ford, 1916).
12 Quoted in Allan L. Benson, “Smokes for Women.” Good Housekeeping, August 1929, 190.
13 “A City’s War Against Cigarets,” Independent, November 8, 1915.
14 “Killing the Cigaret Habit,” Literary Digest, December 6, 1913, 1118.
15 “Smokers’ Palates Painted in Court,” New York Times, January 22, 1914.
16 “Cures Women of Smoking,” New York Times, March 14, 1914.
17 “Rush for Cigarette Cure,” New York Times, January 29, 1914.
18 Review of Habits That Handicap: The Menace of Opium, Alcohol, and Tobacco, and the Remedy, by Charles Barnes Towns, New York Times, August 22, 1915.
19 Charles B. Towns, “The Injury of Tobacco and Its Relation to Other Drug Habits,” Century, March 1912, 766-772; and Charles B. Towns, “Women and Tobacco,” Delaware State Medical Journal 7 (1916): 3-5. For a profile of Towns, see William L. White, Slaying the Dragon: The History of Addiction Treatment and Recovery in America (Bloomington, IL: Chestnut Hills Systems, 1998), 84-87.
20 Twyman Abbott, “The Rights of the Nonsmoker,” Outlook (1910): 763-767.
21 “Form Non-Smokers’ League,” New York Times, May 10, 1910.
22 “To Smoke or Not to Smoke,” New York Times, August 21, 1913.
23 Anti-Smoke, letter to the editor, New York Times, August 29, 1913.
24 “Refuges for Non-Smokers,” Literary Digest, November 22, 1924, 28.
25 “A Restriction Entirely Commendable,” New York Times, October 22, 1913.
26 “72,000 Smokers Petition,” New York Times, October 12, 1913.
27 Richard B. Tennant, The American Cigarette Industry (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 140.
28 “May Deprive Navy of Its Cigarettes,” New York Times, November 24, 1907.
29 Cassandra Tate, “In the 1800s, Antismoking Was Still a Burning Issue.” Smithsonian 20, no.4 (1989): 116. See also Grant Showerman, “Smith, Smoke and the War.” New Republic, February 23, 1918, 109-110; and Gordon L. Dillow, “Thank You for Not Smoking: The Hundred-Year War Against the Cigarette.” American Heritage, February-March 1981, 95-107.
30 G. K. Chesterton, “The Nightmare of Dr. Saleeby,” Living Age, February 10, 1917, 374-375.
31 Sobel, 84.
32 Tate, 76-92.
34 Edwin L. James, “War Department Will Issue Tobacco Rations,” New York Times, May 23, 1918.
35 “They’ve Had a Lot of Tobacco,” New York Times, May 24, 1918; and “$30,000 For Navy Smokes,” New York Times, March 1, 1918.
36 Edith Nilsson Lowe, “Cigarettes for Soldiers,” New York Times, March 17, 1918.
37 “Girls Raise Tobacco Fund,” New York Times, April 26, 1918.
38 Edwin L. James, “War Department Will Issue Tobacco Rations,” New York Times, May 23, 1918.
39 “Makings for the Front,” New York Times, April 12, 1918.
40 “And War Is Indeed Terrible,” New York Times, April 5, 1918.
41 “What It Would Cost to Place a Ban on Tobacco,” Current Opinion 67, no. 62 (1919).
42 Carl Avery Werner, “The Triumph of the Cigarette,” American Mercury, December 1925, 415-421.
43 Fullerton L. Waldo, America at the Front (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1918), 155.
44 Alexander Woollcott, The Command Is Forward: Tales of the A. E. F. Battlefields as They Appeared in the Stars and Stripes (New York: Century, 1919), 74.
45 Sobel, 84.
46 E. Alexander Powell, The Army Behind the Army (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1919), 159.
47 See James D. Norris, “Advertising and the Transformation of American Society, 1865-1920,” in Contributions in Economics and Economic History (New York: Greenwood, 1990).
48 Sobel, 75; and Nannie M. Tilley, The R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 611.
49 Sobel, 77.
50 Norris, 138.
51 Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes (New York: Knopf, 1996), 58.
52 Discontinued brands included Turkish-Fatima, Murad, Mecca, Mogul, Virginia Bright, Sunshine, Home Run, King Bee, and Sweet Caporals.
53 See William E. Leuchtenburg, The Perils of Prosperity: 1914-1932 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); and Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967).
54 See Jennifer D. Keene, “Doughboys, the Great War, and the Remaking of America,” in War/Society/Culture, ed. Michael Fellman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), for a discussion of the nationalizing of American culture during World War I.
55 T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems, 1909-1935 (London: Faber & Faber, 1936), 17. The original year of publication for the poem was 1917.
56 Alfred E. Parker, “Training for Athletics and Health,” Hygeia, June 1933, 537.
57 “Women and the Weed,” Literary Digest, December 19, 1925, 31-32.
58 “Jail For Smoking Mother,” New York Times, October 18, 1904.
59 “No Public Smoking by Women Now,” New York Times, January 21, 1908.
60 “Arrested for Smoking,” New York Times, January 23, 1908.
61 Tate, 101-102; “No Public Smoking by Women Now”; “Smoking by Women Called Deplorable,” New York Times, January 23, 1908; “Women Mustn’t Smoke,” New York Times, January 22, 1908; and “Mayor Lets Women Smoke,” New York Times, February 4, 1908.
62 Michael Schudson, Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
63 A. E. Hamilton, “Killing Lady Nicotine,” North American Review 225, no. 842 (April 1928): 465-468.
64 “Women War-Workers Fight for Privileges, Including Smoking,” Literary Digest, June 28, 1919, 76.
65 Benson, 40-41.
66 L. Ames Brown, “Is a Tobacco Crusade Coming?” Atlantic Monthly, October 1920, 447.
67 “Argument on Anticigaret Measure Waged Earnestly on Second Day in House,” Salt Lake Tribune, February 16, 1921; and John C. Burnham. “American Physicians and Tobacco Use: Two Surgeons General, 1929 and 1964,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 63, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 1-31.
68 “Cigarette Bill Is Still Under Discussion,” Deseret News, February 16, 1921.
69 “Cigarette Measure Is Discussed in Senate,” Deseret News, February 3, 1921.
70 “Senator Southwick Tells Why He Desires Passage of Anticigaret Measure,” Salt Lake Tribune, February 3, 1921.
71 Senator Reed Smoot of Utah, speaking for the Extension of Food and Drugs Act to Tobacco and Tobacco Products in the United States Senate, 71st Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Record (June 10, 1929).
72 “Anticigaret Bill Put Under Fire,” Salt Lake Tribune, February 10, 1921.
73 On the historical rise of a consumer culture, see especially Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears, eds., The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History 1880-1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983); Lawrence B. Glickman, ed., Consumer Society in American History: A Reader (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (New York: McGraw Hill, 1982); and Charles McGovern, Susan Strasser, and Matthias Judt, eds., Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Societies in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
74 M. V. O’Shea, Tobacco and Mental Efficiency (New York: Macmillan, 1923).
75 “Must Lady Nicotine Follow John Barleycorn?” Literary Digest, March 15, 1919, 19-20.
76 “Preparing to Save Tobacco,” New York Times, October 11, 1919.
77 “Shall Tobacco Follow Alcohol?” Independent, April 12, 1919, 50.
78 Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1925).
79 Benson, 192.
80 Ibid., 193.
81 “How Parents Handle the Smoking Problem,” Parents Magazine, April 1935, 18.
82 Alice Payne Hackett, Wellesley: Part of the American Story, American College and University Series, vol. 3 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1949), 218; and “5 College Bar Girls from Football Dance; Wellesley Upholds Off-Campus Smoking Ban,” New York Times, November 19, 1925.
83 “Scolded for Smoking, Two Quit Wellesley; New Woman Has No Chance, Freshmen Say,” New York Times, October 30, 1922.
84 Hackett, 241.
85 “Smoking Co-Eds Penalized,” New York Times, March 15, 1930.
86 Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 277.
87 Fass, 294.
88 “Women and the Weed,” Literary Digest, December 19, 1925, 31-32; and Cornelia Meigs, What Makes a College? A History of Bryn Mawr (New York: Macmillan, 1956).
89 Fass, 298. The dean was from the University of Minnesota.
90 “Smoking Co-Eds,” Literary Digest, May 15, 1937.
91 Ibid.
92 “I,” New York Times, March 1, 1922.
93 “Girls Ban Jazz, Petting, Cigarettes,” New York Times, February 18, 1922.
94 “Is Cigarette Advertising Teaching Women to Smoke?” Printers’ Ink, April 17, 1919, 53-56.
95 William K. Anderson, “Will They Force Us to It?” Christian Century, December 18, 1929, 1577.
96 Benson, 194.
97 Marguerite Harrison, “Sorority of Smoke on Wheels,” New York Times, July 22, 1922.
98 “Few Hotels Have Rules Against Women Smokers,” New York Times, March 16, 1919.
99 Fass, 3.
100 Opponents identified the advertising onslaught as principally responsible for the striking increase in the popularity of the cigarette. The Methodist Episcopal Church’s Board of Temperance, Prohibition, and Public Morals urged a moratorium on cigarette advertising, noting “the number of tobacco users would probably increase by half in five years.” The board urged regulatory oversight that would “force the Tobacco Trust to eliminate from their advertising fraudulent claims as to the v
irtues and effects of their commodity.” But such calls for restrictions on advertising only indicated just how distant opponents had become from the central forces driving the new consumer culture. See Frances Warfield, “Lost Cause: A Portrait of Lucy Page Gaston,” Outlook and Independent, February 20, 1930, 244-247, 275-276; and “Seeks Check by Law on Cigarette Ads,” New York Times, February 3, 1930.
101 Werner, 421.
Chapter 3
1 “Smoking by Women Called Deplorable,” New York Times, January 23, 1908.
2 Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday (New York: Harper and Row, 1931), 90-91.
3 Michael Schudson, Advertising, the Uneasy Persuasion: Its Dubious Impact on American Society (New York: Basic Books, 1984).
4 Mrs. Elton Fulmer, Century Magazine 116, no. 2 (May 1928): 254.
5 “The American Tobacco Co.,” Fortune, December 1936, 97.
6 Albert Davis Lasker, The Lasker Story, as He Told It (Chicago: Advertising Publications, 1963), 5.
7 George H. Allen, “Albert Davis Lasker,” Advertising and Selling, October 13, 1932, 36.
8 Robert Sobel, They Satisfy: The Cigarette in American Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1978), 80.
9 Hill, quoted in J. W. George, “Lucky Strike Campaign Starts Fight over Radio Censorship,” Advertising & Selling, December 26, 1928, 65.
10 Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994); M. N. Gardner and A. M. Brandt, “ ‘The Doctors’ Choice Is America’s Choice’: The Physician in U.S. Cigarette Advertisements, 1930-1953,” American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 2 (2006): 222-32; and Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).
11 Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 115.
12 Allen, 21.
13 Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 21-22.
14 Quoted in Sobel, 101.