The Cigarette Century

by Allan Brandt

  140 Jonathan Kwitny, “Defending the Weed: How Embattled Group Uses Tact, Calculation to Blunt Its Opposition Tobacco Institute Manages Cigaret Firms’ Strategy,” Wall Street Journal, January 24, 1972.

  141 Maxwell Associates, “The Tobacco Conference from June 5-June 11, 1975,” June 5, 1975, Bates Nos. 03801841-92, http://tobaccodocuments.org/lor/03801841-1892.html.

  142 A. Lee Fritschler, Smoking and Politics: Policy Making and the Federal Bureaucracy (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989).

  143 See, among others, Morton Keller, Regulating a New Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism: A Reinterpretation of American History, 1900-1916 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963); and James Q. Wilson, The Politics of Regulation (New York: Basic Books, 1980).

  144 On the limits of tobacco regulation, see especially Jonathan Franzen, “Sifting the Ashes,” in How to Be Alone (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002), 143-163.

  145 Kwitny.

  Chapter 9

  1 Steve Martin, Let’s Get Small, Warner Brothers, 1977.

  2 David Carrig “Phone Merger Talks,” USA Today, April 18, 1996.

  3 Emily Post, “The Etiquette of Smoking,” Good Housekeeping, September 1940, 37. On the history of manners and their social significance, see Norbert Elias, History of Manners, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Urizen Books, 1978); and John F. Kasson, Rudeness and Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Urban America (New York: Hill & Wang, 1991).

  4 Kenneth E. Warner, “The Effects of the Anti-Smoking Campaign on Cigarette Consumption,” American Journal of Public Health 67, no. 7 (1977): 648.

  5 Allan M. Brandt and Paul Rozin, eds., Morality and Health (New York: Routledge, 1997). See the special volume on “Risk,” Daedalus 119, no. 4 (1990).

  6 John H. Knowles, “The Responsibility of the Individual,” Daedalus 106 (1977): 57-80.

  7 Thomas Whiteside, Selling Death: Cigarette Advertising and Public Health (New York: Liveright, 1971).

  8 Howard M. Leichter, Free to Be Foolish: Politics and Health Promotion in the United States and Great Britain (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991).

  9 Allan M. Brandt, “Blow Some My Way: Passive Smoking, Risk, and American Culture,” in The History of Smoking and Health, eds. Lois Reynolds, E. M. Tansey, and Steven Lock (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998), 164-191; Ronald Bayer and James Colgrove, “Children and Bystanders First: The Ethics and Politics of Tobacco Control in the United States,” in Unfiltered: Conflicts over Tobacco Policy and Public Health, eds. Eric A. Feldman and Ronald Bayer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 8-37.

  10 Ronald Bayer and James Colgrove, “Science, Politics, and Ideology in the Campaign Against Environmental Tobacco Smoke,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 6 (2002): 949-954.

  11 “The Right Not to Smoke,” New York Times, May 5, 1978.

  12 Constance A. Nathanson, Analysis of U.S. Tobacco Control Movement: A Final Report to the Association of Schools of Public Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 31. See also Ronald J. Troyer and Gerald E. Markowitz, Cigarettes: The Battle over Smoking (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1984).

  13 On common sense assessments, see James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Doubleday, 2004).

  14 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, The Health Consequences of Involuntary Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, DC: GPO, 1986) [Involuntary Smoking]; U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders (Washington, DC: U. S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1993); National Research Council Committee on Passive Smoking, Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Measuring Exposures and Assessing Health Effects (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1986).

  15 Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island, 2005); Caroline Merchant, ed., The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 174-191; and Lewis S. Warren, ed., American Environmental History (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2003).

  16 P. H. Abelson, “A Damaging Source of Air Pollution,” Science 158, no. 808 (1967): 1527.

  17 Frederic Speer, “Tobacco and the Nonsmoker: A Study of Subjective Symptoms,” Archives of Environmental Health 16, no. 3 (1968): 443.

  18 Ibid., 445.

  19 T. Hirayama, “Non-Smoking Wives of Heavy Smokers Have a Higher Risk of Lung Cancer: A Study from Japan,” British Medical Journal (Clin Res Ed) 282, no. 6259 (1981): 183-185.

  20 D. Trichopoulos, A. Kalandidi, L. Sparros, and B. MacMahon, “Lung Cancer and Passive Smoking,” International Journal of Cancer 27, no. 1 (1981): 3.

  21 Ibid.

  22 J. L. Repace and A. H. Lowrey, “Indoor Air Pollution, Tobacco Smoke, and Public Health,” Science 208, no. 4443 (1980): 464-472.

  23 Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes (New York: Knopf, 1996), 493.

  24 John D. Spengler and Ken Sexton, “Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health Perspective,” Science 221, no. 4605 (1983): 9-17.

  25 Jonathan E. Fielding and Kenneth J. Phenow, “Health Effects of Involuntary Smoking,” New England Journal of Medicine 319, no. 22 (1988): 1452-1460. The article reported eighteen studies since 1981—three prospective and fifteen case-control.

  26 John Banzhaf, “‘Please Put Your Cigarette Out; the Smoke Is Killing Me!” Today’s Health, April 1972, 38-41. See also Joseph A. Page, “The Law Professor Behind ASH, Soup, Pump and Crash,” New York Times, August 23, 1970; and Nathanson, 72-73.

  27 Banzhaf, 39.

  28 Ibid.

  29 Constance A. Nathanson, “Social Movements as Catalysts for Policy Change: The Case of Smoking and Guns,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 24, no. 3 (1999): 421-488.

  30 Nathanson, Analysis of U.S. Tobacco Control Movement, 74.

  31 A. Lee Fritschler, Smoking and Politics: Policy Making and the Federal Bureaucracy (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989), 116-117.

  32 Nathanson, Analysis of U.S. Tobacco Control Movement; Mark Wolfson, The Fight Against Big Tobacco: The Movement, the State, and the Public’s Health (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2001).

  33 “Enforcement of Ban on Smoking in Minnesota Is No Easy Matter,” New York Times, September 9, 1979.

  34 No relation to the author.

  35 Theodore H. Tsoukalas, Jennifer K. Ibrahim, and Stanton A. Glantz, “Shifting Tides: Minnesota Tobacco Politics,” Tobacco Control Policy Making: United States (San Francisco: Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education, University of California, 2003).

  36 Ibid.

  37 Douglas E. Kneeland, “Antismoking Drive Keeps Gaining, but Impetus Seems to Have Slowed,” New York Times, January 26, 1979.

  38 Richard Martin, “Pressure Rises to Go Smokeless,” Insight, May 19, 1986, 8.

  39 John K. Iglehart, “Health Policy Report: The Campaign Against Smoking Gains Momentum,” New England Journal of Medicine 314, no. 16 (1986): 1059-1064; and Ruth A. Behrens, “Reducing Smoking at the Workplace” [Washington Business Group on Health Worksite Well-ness Series], October 1985, Bates No. 2045964535/4570, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/rkc03e00.

  40 Behrens.

  41 Iglehart.

  42 The Roper Organization, Inc., “A Study of Public Attitudes Toward Cigarette Smoking and the Tobacco Industry in 1978, Vol. I,” May 1978, Bates No. 966071061/1341: 1073, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/jdc70a00.

  43 Ibid.

  44 Ibid.

  45 Ibid., 1067.

  46 Ibid., 1068.

  47 Ibid., 1069.

  48 Ibid.

  49 J. L. Steinfeld, “Women and Children Last? Attitudes Toward Cigarette Smoking and Nonsmokers’ Rights, 1971,” New York State Journal Medicine 83, no. 13 (1983): 1257-1258.

  50 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon Genera
l, The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General, 1972 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1972).

  51 Involuntary Smoking; and National Research Council Committee on Passive Smoking, Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Measuring Exposures and Assessing Health Effects (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1986) [Environmental Tobacco Smoke].

  52 Irvin Molotsky, “Surgeon General, Citing Risks, Urges Smoke-Free Workplace,” New York Times, December 17, 1986.

  53 Involuntary Smoking; Environmental Tobacco Smoke, 28-31.

  54 Involuntary Smoking; Environmental Tobacco Smoke.

  55 S. L. Temko, “The Tobacco Institute, Inc. Minutes of Meeting of the Executive Committee December 10, 1987 New York, New York,” 1987, Bates Nos. TIMN0014390-3. See also A. D. C. Turner, “Managing the ETS Issue—Report by ETS Issue Management Group,” June 18, 1987, Bates Nos. 620805325-53, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/1458482.html; and “Indoor Air Quality Alternative Strategy,” http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/137830.html.

  56 Philip Morris, “Indoor Air Quality Alternative Strategy,” March 21, 1986, Bates No. 2025858759, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/vrr85e00.

  57 John P. Rupp, “Privileged & Confidential Attorney Work Product: Letter from John Rupp (C&B) to Sharon Boyse (BATCo) Explaining Setup, Function of Center for Indoor Air Research (CIAR),” March 12, 1993, Bates Nos. 87803009-13, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/87803009-3013.html.

  58 “Remarks by William Murray, Vice Chairman of the Board, Philip Morris Companies Inc., at the 1989 Philip Morris Legal Conference, Ritz-Carlton Hotel, Naples, Florida,” April 4, 1989, Bates No. 2023265282/5295, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/qpi46e00. See also Turner.

  59 D. E. Barnes and L. A. Bero, “Why Review Articles on the Health Effects of Passive Smoking Reach Different Conclusions,” JAMA 279, no. 19 (1998): 1566-1570.

  60 John C. Luik, “Pandora’s Box: The Dangers of Politically Corrupted Science for Democratic Public Policy,” Bostonia, Winter 1994, 50-60.

  61 Don Colburn, “Smoke Gets in Your Eyes; Leading Scientists Examine Effects of Sidestream Fumes,” Washington Post, February 5,1986. See also Philip Witorsch, “ETS and Cardiorespiratory Disorders” [testimony before the National Academies of Science], January 29, 1986, Bates Nos. TI2995 1555-833: 1725, http://tobaccodocuments.org/nysa_ti_m2/TI29951555.html.

  62 Colburn.

  63 “Government Health Officials Involved in Efforts to Censor Dissenting Scientific Viewpoints. The Tobacco Institute Demands Cabinet-Level Investigation, Accuses Officials of Abusing Science for Political Ends,” December 11, 1986, Bates No. 2501052381/2382, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/btw19e00; Tobacco Institute, “Tobacco Smoke and the Nonsmoker: Scientific Integrity at the Crossroads,” 1986, Bates No. 980237045/7101, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/lrp90c00.

  64 Charles Rosenberg, “Banishing Risk: Continuity and Change in the Moral Management of Disease,” in Morality and Health, eds. Allan M. Brandt and Paul Rozin (New York: Routledge, 1997): 35-52.

  65 R. B. Seligman, “Memorandum from Philip Morris Employee to Philip Morris Counsel and Philip Morris Employee Containing Information Requested by Philip Morris Counsel Regarding Joint Defense Research,” November 17, 1978, Bates Nos. 1003718428-32, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/1003718428-8432.html.

  66 “Project Down Under Conference Notes,” 1987, Bates Nos. 2021502102-34, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/23693.html.

  67 Ibid., Bates No. 2021502112.

  68 Ibid., Bates No. 2021502128.

  69 Ibid., Bates No. 2021502117.

  70 Ibid., Bates No. 2021502114.

  71 Ibid., Bates No. 2021502110.

  72 Ibid.

  73 R. Seitz, “Memorandum Concerning Meeting with Dr. Walter Spitzer and His Group Studying the Effects of Passive Exposure to Tobacco Smoke on 880830 and 880831,” September 9, 1988, Bates No. 2023552141/2146, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/172490.html.

  74 “Project Down Under Conference Notes,” Bates No. 2021502116.

  75 B. Samuels and S. A. Glantz, “The Politics of Local Tobacco Control.” JAMA 266, no. 15 (1991): 2110-2117.

  76 Ward Sinclair, “Massive New U.S. Report Blasts Cigarette Smoking; Antismoking Drive Growing in America,” Washington Post, January 12, 1979.

  77 Ibid.

  78 Stanley S. Scott, “Smokers Get a Raw Deal,” New York Times, April 29, 1985.

  79 Philip Morris, “Tapgram: The Winners,” June 1987, Bates Nos. TIMN0418364-9, http://tobaccodocuments.org/ti/TIMN0418364-8369.html.

  80 “Both Sides in Cigarette Fight Hold National Essay Contests.” New York Times, November 5, 1986.

  81 Great American Smoker’s Kit, 1986, Bates No. 2024274461/4470: 4463, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/irh04e00.

  82 Ibid., Bates No. 2024274465.

  83 Michael S. Givel and Stanton A. Glantz, “Tobacco Lobby Political Influence on U.S. State Legislatures in the 1990s,” Tobacco Control 10, no. 2 (2001): 129.

  84 Peter D. Jacobson, Jeffrey Wasserman, and Krisiana Raube, “The Politics of Antismoking Legislation,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 18, no. 4 (1993): 787-819, 803.

  85 “Smoking and Health Initiatives—P.M. International,” March 1985, Bates No. 2023268366/8374, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/178716.html.

  86 R.J. Reynolds, “Introduction to the SOSAS Recommended Action Programs,” October 1, 1978, Bates Nos. 500009897-920, http://tobaccodocuments.org/landman/500009897-9920.html.

  87 Sarah Booth Conroy, “Fired Up over Philip Morris,” Washington Post, November 10, 1989.

  88 Peter D. Jacobson and Soheil Soliman, “Co-Opting the Health and Human Rights Movement,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 4 (2002): 705-715; and M. Teresa Cardador, Anna R. Hazan, and Stanton A. Glantz, “Tobacco Industry Smokers’ Rights Publications: A Content Analysis,” American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 9 (1995): 1212-1217.

  89 See Monique E. Muggli, Jean L. Forster, Richard D. Hurt, and James L. Repace, “The Smoke You Don’t See: Uncovering Tobacco Industry Scientific Strategies Aimed Against Environmental Tobacco Smoke Policies,” American Journal of Public Health 91, no. 9 (2001): 1419-1423; and David Garne, “Environmental Tobacco Smoke Research Published in the Journal Indoor and Built Environment and Associations with the Tobacco Industry,” Lancet 365, no. 9461 (2005): 804-806.

  90 William Kloepfer, “Report on Public Smoking Issue, Executive Committee,” April 10, 1985, Bates No. TIMN0013710/3723, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/owo03f00.

  91 Susan Stuntz, Jeff Ross, and Lisa Osborne, “Corporate Contacts Re: Workplace Smoking,” April 15, 1986, Bates No. 85544385/4435, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/kuu31e00.

  92 This approach was supported, for example, in R.J. Reynolds advertisements.

  93 Judith Martin (pseud. Miss Manners), “Non-Smoker’s Behavior Was Publicly Offensive,” Toronto Star, August 23, 1991.

  94 Judith Martin (pseud. Miss Manners), “Where There’s Smoke, There’s Ire,” Washington Post, December 1, 1985.

  95 Ibid.

  96 Judith Martin (pseud. Miss Manners), “Wait Until Course Is Over Before Trying to Date Prof,” Toronto Star, March 17, 1989.

  97 Trish Hall, “Smoking of Cigarettes Seems to Be Becoming a Lower-Class Habit,” Wall Street Journal, June 25, 1985.

  98 See “‘No Smoking’ in Translation,” New York Times, June 30, 1996.

  99 Morris D. Rosenberg, “Fearless Traveler: Speaking of the Fair,” Washington Post, August 15, 1982.

  100 Editorial, Washington Post, June 17, 1977.

  101 James Ott, “Carriers Strongly Oppose CAB Smoking Restrictions,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, August 20, 1979.

  102 Norman A. Adler, “Airliners Devoid of Unpolluted Air,” New York Times, July 1, 1983.

  103 Mitchell Smyth, “Hey, Weed Addicts! Here’s Your Smoking Salon in the Sky,” Toronto Star, September 30, 1995.

  104 Scott Thurston, “Support Growing for Smoking Ban on Overseas Flights: Attendant
s Stepping to Forefront of Battle,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, March 12, 1994.

  105 Douglas B. Feaver, “Smoking on Airliners Off, Then On,” Washington Post, June 1, 1984; and Irvin Molotsky, “No-Smoking Rule Is On and Off Again,” New York Times, June 1, 1984.

  106 A. L. Holm and R. M. Davis, “Clearing the Airways: Advocacy and Regulation for Smoke-Free Airlines,” Tobacco Control 13 (Suppl 1) (2004): 30-36.

  107 “Senate Weighs Ban of Flight Smoking,” New York Times, September 14, 1989.

  108 Dan Morgan, “Airline Smoking Ban Takes Off in Senate,” Washington Post, September 8, 1989.

  109 The Tobacco Institute, “Passport to Smokers’ Rights,” April 1990, Bates Nos. TI10030648- 718, http://tobaccodocuments.org/nysa_indexed/TI10030648.html.

  110 Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders (Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency, 1992); and Warren E. Leary, “U.S. Ties Secondhand Smoke to Cancer,” New York Times, January 8, 1993. See also Michelle Murphy, Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty: Environmental Politics, Technoscience, and Women Workers (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).

  111 Leary; and Timothy Noah, “EPA Declares ‘Passive’ Smoke a Human Carcinogen,” Wall Street Journal, January 6, 1993.

  112 Noah.

  113 T. Humber, “ETS Media Strategy,” February 1993, Bates No. 2023920090/0101, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/sav88e00; and T. Humber, “Memo to Ellen Merlo and Victor Han on ETS,” February 1993, Bates No. 2023920074/0089, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/mpf34e00.