The Cigarette Century

by Allan Brandt

  97 Bill McAllister, “Heavy Hitters in the High-Stakes Tobacco Fight Arena,” Washington Post, June 4, 1998.

  98 Jill Abramson and Barry Meier, “Tobacco Braced for Costly Fight,” New York Times, December 15, 1997; and Maureen Dowd, “Integrity Clearance Sale,” New York Times, December 20, 1997.

  99 David E. Rosenbaum, “Senate Is Offered Sweeping Measure to Fight Smoking,” New York Times, March 31, 1998.

  100 Derthick.

  101 Susan B. Garland, “What May Stub Out the Settlement,” Business Week, September 8, 1997, 83.

  102 “World Anti-Smoking Activists Decry U.S. Deal in Tobacco Suits,” Tampa Tribune, August 28, 1997. See also Judith Mackay et al., “Statement of International Tobacco Control Advocates on U.S. Tobacco Litigation Settlement Discussions,” 1997, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/pbq63c00.

  103 “Progress Against Tobacco,” Christian Science Monitor, August 28, 1997.

  104 Dean T. Jamison, Andrew Creese, and Thomson Prentice, “Combating the Tobacco Epidemic,” The World Health Report 1999 (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1999), 65-79.

  105 Howard Kurtz, “The Democrat Who Switched and Fought: Former Gore Confidant Formulated Tobacco Industry’s Effective Ad Blitz,” Washington Post, June 19, 1998; and Kirk Victor, “McCain Gets Hit by Friendly Fire,” National Journal, May 2, 1998, 994-995.

  106 The tobacco industry ran a similar, ultimately unsuccessful campaign in California in 1988. See E. D. Balbach, M. P. Traynor, and S. A. Glantz, “The Implementation of California’s Tobacco Tax Initiative: The Critical Role of Outsider Strategies in Protecting Proposition 99,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law 25, no. 4 (2000): 689-715; and M. E. Begay, M. Traynor, and S. A. Glantz, “The Tobacco Industry, State Politics, and Tobacco Education in California,” American Journal of Public Health 83, no. 9 (1993): 1214-1221.

  107 Pertschuk, 248.

  108 Robert J. Blendon and J. T. Young, “The Public and the Comprehensive Tobacco Bill,” JAMA 280, no. 14 (1998): 1279-1284.

  109 Jeffrey Goldberg, “Big Tobacco’s Endgame,” New York Times Magazine, June 21, 1998, 38, 62.

  110 Ibid., 39.

  111 Ibid., 36.

  112 Barry Meiers, “Court Rejects FDA Authority over Tobacco,” New York Times, August 15, 1998.

  113 Ibid.

  114 Eric Brazil, “Tobacco Firms Are ‘Getting Off Cheap,’” San Francisco Examiner, November 12, 1998.

  115 Allan M. Brandt and Julius B. Richmond, “Settling Short on Tobacco: Let the Trials Begin,” JAMA 278, no. 12 (1997): 1028.

  116 Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corporation, Lorillard Tobacco Company, Philip Morris Incorporated, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, Commonwealth Tobacco, and Liggett & Myers. The Liggett Group, the last tobacco manufacturer to sign on, was released from its previous settlements with a number of states and will not have to contribute to the settlement fund unless its sales rise more than 25 percent over current levels.

  117 Richard A. Daynard, The Emperor’s Fig Leaf: Draft Summary of AG Tobacco Deal Contains Few New Public Health Provisions and Lacks Many Critical Industry Concessions, 1998, accessed June 27, 2006, from http://www.tobacco.neu.edu/tobacco_control/resources/msa/analysis_of_draft.htm.

  118 Ralph Nader, “Perspective on the Tobacco Settlement: Marlboro Man Still in the Saddle,” Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1998.

  119 Brazil.

  120 F. A. Sloan, C. A. Mathews, and J. G. Trogdon, “Impacts of the Master Settlement Agreement on the Tobacco Industry,” Tobacco Control 13, no. 4 (2004): 356-361.

  121 “Master Settlement Agreement, 1998,” accessed July 2, 2006, at http://www.naag.org/tobac/cigmsa.rtf.

  122 Kenneth E. Warner, “Cigarette Taxation: Doing Good by Doing Well,” Journal of Public Health Policy 5, no. 3 (1984): 312-319; E. M. Lewitt and D. Coate, “The Potential for Using Excise Taxes to Reduce Smoking,” Journal of Health Economics 1, no. 2 (1982): 121-145; and F. J. Chaloupka et al., “Tax, Price and Cigarette Smoking: Evidence from the Tobacco Documents and Implications for Tobacco Company Marketing Strategies,” Tobacco Control 11 (Suppl 1) (2002): i62-i72.

  123 M. Grossman and F. J. Chaloupka, “Cigarette Taxes: The Straw to Break the Camel’s Back,” Public Health Reports 112, no. 4 (1997): 290-297.

  124 Chaloupka et al., “The Effects of Excise Taxes and Regulations on Cigarette Smoking,” Journal of Health Economics 10, no. 1 (1991): 43-64; M. H. Showalter, “The Effect of Cigarette Taxes on Cigarette Consumption,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 7 (1998): 1118-1119; K. J. Meier and M. J. Licari, “The Effect of Cigarette Taxes on Cigarette Consumption, 1955 through 1994,” American Journal of Public Health 87, no. 7 (1997): 1126-1130; and Jonathan Gruber, “Youth Smoking in the U.S.: Prices and Policies” [Working Paper 7506], National Bureau of Economics Research (2000).

  125 After declines since 1997, in 2006 the CDC reported that teen smoking rates had “plateaued.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Youth Risk Behavior Survey, June 9, 2006.

  126 Myron Levin, “States’ Tobacco Settlement Has Failed to Clear the Air,” Los Angeles Times, November 9, 2003.

  127 H. K. Koh et al., “The First Decade of the Massachusetts Tobacco Control Program,” Public Health Reports 120, no. 5 (2005): 482-495.

  128 Levin, “States’ Tobacco Settlement Has Failed to Clear the Air.”

  129 Richard A. Daynard, e-mail to Smokescreen mailing list, November 10, 1998.

  130 Steven A. Schroeder, “Tobacco Control in the Wake of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement,” New England Journal of Medicine 350, no. 3 (2004): 293-301.

  131 Daniel Gross, “Cigarette Burns: State Governments Learn the Cost of Their Addiction to Tobacco Revenues,” Slate, April 3, 2003. Price was later overturned by the Illinois Supreme Court.

  132 Dean Foust, “The High Cost of Nicotine Withdrawal,” Business Week, May 23, 2005.

  133 Vanessa O’Connell, “Big Tobacco Seeks $1.2 Billion Cut in Payments to States,” Wall Street Journal, March 8, 2006.

  134 Seth Stevenson, “How to Get Teens Not to Smoke: Prey on Their Insecurity,” Slate, March 7, 2005.

  135 M. C. Farrelly et al., “Evidence of a Dose-Response Relationship Between ‘Truth’ AntiSmoking Ads and Youth Smoking Prevalence,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 3 (2005): 425-431; and Lois Biener et al., “Impact of Smoking Cessation Aids and Mass Media Among Recent Quitters,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 30, no. 3 (2006): 217-224. See also Cheryl Healton, “Who’s Afraid of the Truth?” American Journal of Public Health 91, no. 4 (2001): 554-558.

  136 The American Legacy Foundation, “The Truth,” accessed July 5, 2006, at http://www.protectthetruth.org.

  137 Myron Levin, “States’ Tobacco Settlement Has Failed to Clear the Air.” 138. Thomas Farragher, “Up in Smoke/First of Two Parts; Little of $246b Deal Fights Tobacco,” Boston Globe, August 9, 2001.

  139 Ibid.

  140 Ibid.

  141 Derthick; P. D. Jacobson and K. E. Warner, “Litigation and Public Health Policy Making: The Case of Tobacco Control,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law 24, no. 4 (1999): 769-804; W. Kip Viscusi, ed., Regulation Through Litigation (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2002); and Larry O. Gostin, Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).

  142 Kenneth W. Dam, “Class Actions: Efficiency, Compensation, Deterrence, and Conflict of Interest,” Journal of Legal Studies 4, no. 1 (1975): 47-73.

  143 “The Tobacco Litigation and Attorneys’ Fees,” Fordham Law Review 67, no. 6 (1999): 2827-2858.

  144 Jon D. Hanson and Kyle D. Logue, “The Costs of Cigarettes: The Economic Case for Ex Post Incentive-Based Regulation,” Yale Law Journal 107, no. 5 (1998): 1163-1362.

  145 Brandt and Richmond.

  146 On the debates about litigation and policy, see especially Lynn Mather, “Theorizing About Trial Courts: Lawyers, Policymaking, and Tobacco Litigation,” Law & Social Inquiry 23, no. 4 (1998): 8
97-940; Peter D. Jacobson and Soheil Soliman, “Litigation as Public Health Policy: Theory or Reality?” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 2 (2002): 224-238; and Peter D. Jacobson and Kenneth E. Warner, “Litigation and Public Health Policy Making: The Case of Tobacco Control,” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 24, no. 4 (1999): 769-804.

  147 National Association of Attorneys General, “Cigarette Sales in U.S. Reach Historic 55-Year Low,” press release, March 8, 2006.

  148 N. A. Rigotti, “Clinical Practice. Treatment of Tobacco Use and Dependence,” New England Journal of Medicine 346, no. 7 (2002): 506-512; and S. Zhu, T. Melcer, J. Sun, B. Rosbrook, and J. P. Pierce, “Smoking Cessation with and Without Assistance: A Population-Based Analysis,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 18, no. 4 (2000): 305-311.

  149 E. M. Barbeau, A. Leavy-Sperounis, and E. D. Balbach, “Smoking, Social Class, and Gender: What Can Public Health Learn from the Tobacco Industry About Disparities in Smoking?” Tobacco Control 13, no. 2 (2004): 115-120; P. M. Lantz et al., “Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Change in a Longitudinal Study of U.S. Adults: The Role of Health-Risk Behaviors,” Social Science and Medicine 53, no. 1 (2001): 29-40; D. A. Lawlor et al., “Smoking and Ill Health: Does Lay Epidemiology Explain the Failure of Smoking Cessation Programs Among Deprived Populations?” American Journal of Public Health 93, no. 2 (2003): 266-270; and Michael C. Fiore, ed., Clinical Practice Guideline: Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence, Michael C. Fiore, ed., (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000).

  150 On recent policy debates, see especially the work of economist Kenneth Warner, “The Effects of the Anti-Smoking Campaign on Cigarette Consumption,” American Journal of Public Health 67, no. 7 (1977), 645-650; “Health and Economic Implications of a Tobacco-Free Society,” JAMA 258, no. 15 (1987): 2080-2086; “The Economics of Tobacco: Myths and Realities,” Tobacco Control 9, no. 1 (2000): 78-89. See also Stephen L. Isaacs and Steven A. Schroeder, “Where the Public Good Prevailed: Government’s Public-Health Successes,” American Prospect, June 4, 2001, http://www.prospect.org/web/printfriendly-view.ww?id=5737; K. Michael Cummings, “Programs and Policies to Discourage the Use of Tobacco Products,” Oncogene 21, no. 48 (2002): 7349-7364; and John B. McKinlay and Lisa D. Marceau, “Upstream Healthy Public Policy: Lessons from the Battle of Tobacco,” International Journal of Health Services 20, no. 1 (2000): 49-69.

  151 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2004).

  152 H. Ahsan and D. C. Thomas, “Lung Cancer Etiology: Independent and Joint Effects of Genetics, Tobacco, and Arsenic,” JAMA 292, no. 24 (2004): 3026-3029; N. Risch, “Dissecting Racial and Ethnic Differences,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 4 (2006): 408-411; and R. Bayer, and J. Stuber, “Tobacco Control, Stigma, and Public Health: Rethinking the Relations,” American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 1 (2006): 47-50.

  153 A. Chapple, S. Ziebland, and A. McPherson, “Stigma, Shame, and Blame Experienced by Patients with Lung Cancer: Qualitative Study,” British Medical Journal 328, no. 7454 (2004): 1470-1474.

  154 Carey Goldberg, “Changing the Face of Lung Cancer,” Boston Globe, September 26, 2005; Virginia Anderson, “Blame, Shame Overshadow Real Plight of Lung Cancer Sufferers: There’s Still No Clear Way to Catch It Early,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, August 16, 2005.

  155 Howard M. Leichter, Free to Be Foolish (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 134-142.

  156 Cass R. Sunstein, Laws of Fear: Beyond the Precautionary Principle (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Cass R. Sunstein, Risk and Reason: Safety, Law and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Paul Slovic, The Perception of Risk (Sterling, VA: Earthscan Publications, 2000).

  157 Philip Morris USA Web site, http://www.pmusa.com.

  158 Lois Biener, “Anti-Tobacco Advertisements by Massachusetts and Philip Morris: What Teenagers Think,” Tobacco Control 11 (Suppl 2) (2002): ii43-ii46; P. A. McDaniel, E. A. Smith, and R. E. Malone, “Philip Morris’s Project Sunrise: Weakening Tobacco Control by Working with It,” Tobacco Control 15, no. 3 (2006): 215-223; and Krueger’s posts on “Tobacco On Trial,” http://www.tobacco-on-trial.com.

  159 Allan M. Brandt, “Behavior, Disease, and Health in Twentieth-Century America: The Moral Valence of Individual Risk,” in Morality and Health, eds. Allan M. Brandt and Paul Rozin (New York: Routledge, 1997), 53-77. See also James A. Morone, Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003); Dan E. Beauchamp, The Health of the Republic: Epidemics, Medicine, and Moralism as Challenges to Democracy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988); and Dan Wikler, “Personal and Social Responsibility for Health,” in Public Health, Ethics, and Equity, eds. Fabienne Peter, Amartya Sen, and Sudhir Anand (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).

  Chapter 13

  1 Robert J. Cole, “Record Export Sales Forecast for U.S. Cigarette Producers,” New York Times, November 7, 1962.

  2 David E. Sanger, “For Helms, His Home State Is Source of Foreign Policy,” New York Times, April 2, 1996.

  3 Roger Scruton, WHO, What and Why? Trans-National Government, Legitimacy and the World Health Organization (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 2000).

  4 Quoted in Bryan Burrough and John Helyar, Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 218.

  5 “Cigarette Smoking Among Adults—United States, 2004,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 54, no. 44 (2005).

  6 Centers for Disease Control, “Smoking Prevalence Among U.S. Adults, 2002,” accessed March 26, 2004, at http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/research_data/adults_prev/prevali.htm.

  7 A. Jemal et al., “Cancer Statistics, 2006,” CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians 56, no. 2 (2006): 106-130.

  8 Spencer Rich, “Cigarette-Related Deaths Decline,” Washington Post, August 27, 1993; and A. J. Alberg and J. M. Samet, “Epidemiology of Lung Cancer,” Chest 123 (1 Suppl) (2003): 21S-49S.

  9 “Cigarette Smoking Among Adults—United States, 2000,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51, no. 29 (2002): 642-645.

  10 B. L. Nordstrom et al., “Predictors of Continued Smoking over 25 Years of Follow-up in the Normative Aging Study,” American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 3 (2000): 404-406.

  11 For a comparative assessment of Western regulatory approaches, see Donley T. Studlar, Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United States and Canada (Toronto: Broadview, 2002).

  12 Carl E. Bartecchi, Thomas D. MacKenzie, and Robert W. Schrier, “The Global Tobacco Epidemic,” Scientific American, May 1995, 44-51; Susan Headden, “The Marlboro Man Lives!” U.S. News & World Report, September 21, 1998; Jane Perlez, “Fenced In at Home, Marlboro Man Looks Abroad,” New York Times, June 24, 1997; and Paul Klebnikov, “Opiate of the Masses,” Forbes, April 11, 1994, 74-75.

  13 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Tobacco Situation and Outlook Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1995).

  14 Robert Franklin Durden, The Dukes of Durham, 1865-1929 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1975), 73.

  15 F. J. Chaloupka and A. Laixuthai, “U.S. Trade Policy and Cigarette Smoking in Asia” [Working Paper W5543], National Bureau of Economic Research (1996); and P. Jha et al., “Estimates of Global and Regional Smoking Prevalence in 1995, by Age and Sex,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 6 (2002): 1002-1006.

  16 Judith Mackay, Michael Eriksen, and Omar Shafey, The Tobacco Atlas, 2nd ed. (Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2006); and Robert N. Proctor, “Tobacco and the Global Lung Cancer Epidemic,” Nature Reviews Cancer 1, no. 1 (2001): 82-88.

  17 Majid Ezzati and Alan D. Lopez, “Estimates of Global Mortality Attributable to Smoking in 2000,” Lancet 362, no.
9387 (2003): 847-852.

  18 Nancy J. Kaufman and Mimi Nichter, “The Marketing of Tobacco to Women: Global Perspectives,” in Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century, eds. Jonathan M. Samet and Soon-Young Yoon (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001), 69-98.

  19 Bo-Qi Liu et al., “Emerging Tobacco Hazards in China: 1. Retrospective Proportional Mortality Study of One Million Deaths,” British Medical Journal 317, no. 7170 (1998): 1411-1422; World Health Organization, Making a Difference (Geneva: World Health Report, 1999); Kenneth E. Warner, “Tobacco,” Foreign Policy (May/June 2002): 20-28; and Glenn Frankel and Steven Mufson, “Vast China Market Key to Smoking Disputes,” Washington Post, November 20, 1996. On changing cultural norms in China, see Matthew Kohrmann, “Should I Quit? Tobacco, Fraught Identity, and the Risks of Govermentality in Urban China,” Urban Anthropology 33, no. 2 (2004): 211-245.

  20 President William Clinton, State of the Union Address, 2000.

  21 Gill Walt, “Globalisation of International Health,” Lancet 351, no. 9100 (1998): 434-437; and David P. Fidler, “International Law and Global Public Health,” Kansas Law Review 48, no. 1 (1999).

  22 Hugh Cullman, “Partners in Progress: A Report on Philip Morris in the Developing Countries” (New York: Corporate Affairs Department, Philip Morris), 1977, Bates No. 2015006022/ 6039, http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/ksk68e00.

  23 Chaloupka; Brown & Williamson, “Priority 3: Expand and Grow Internationally,” 1987, Bates No. 635616578/6597; Robert Weissman and Ross Hammond, “International Tobacco Sales,” Foreign Policy in Focus 3, no. 17 (2000); Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Section 301 Is Polished as U.S. Trade Weapon,” New York Times, August 27, 1985; Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Trade Pact Set with Taiwan,” New York Times, December 9, 1986; U.S. General Accounting Office, Trade and Health Issues: Dichotomy Between U.S. Tobacco Export Policy and Antismoking Initiatives, (1990) [Trade and Health Issues: Dichotomy]; Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Freer World Trade Falls Victim to Its Own Success,” New York Times, October 27, 1990; U.S. General Accounting Office, International Trade: Advertising and Promoting U.S. Cigarettes in Selected Asian Countries, (1992).