OPERATIONS
Subtraction Subtraction, the inverse of addition, means to take a certain number away from the original value. So for example, if we subtract 3 from 10 (expressed as 10 – 3), then we are left with 7. The first time the minus sign appeared in text was also in Johannes Widmann’s Mercantile Arithmetic or Behende und hubsche Rechenung auff allen Kauffmanschafft. It is believed that the minus sign may have come from the tilde (~) which was used with the letter m to represent the Latin word meno, meaning minus.
TISSUES
Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissue is tissue that covers the entire body, and it forms the covering or lining of internal and external surfaces. It is made up of closely packed cells formed into one or many layers, with close to no intercellular spaces and little intercellular substance. Endothelium is the tissue on the surface of the internal cavities, and its main function is for absorption, excretion, protection, secretion, reproduction, and sensory reception.
RUSSIAN
Cyrillic In the ninth century, Constantine and Methodius, two missionaries, were ordered to write down the language of Old Slavonic and preach to the people of Moravia about Christianity. Constantine, who on his deathbed changed his name to Cyril, created a Slavonic alphabet that is now known as Cyrillic. The Cyrillic alphabet was closely based on the Greek alphabet, with additional letters added for sounds not found in the Greek system.
LESSON 7C
THE REFORMATION
The Reformation Spreads Throughout the Land At the same time that Luther’s ideas began to spread, Ulrich Zwingli led a similar revolt in Switzerland. The printing press enabled the ideas of Luther and Zwingli to reach the general public; however, there were differences in some of their ideologies. The teachings of Luther would become established as Lutheranism. Soon another voice would rise and become a prominent figure in the Protestant Reformation: John Calvin.
WRITING
Left-Handedness Handedness is more than just which hand feels more comfortable when writing. Hand orientation develops in the fetus. One leading theory suggests that prenatal testosterone impacts brain organization of the fetus, and that higher amounts of it can lead to left-handedness in the child. This theory would help explain why more males are left-handed than females, and why there is a higher rate of left-handedness found in male twins.
OPERATIONS
Multiplication Multiplication is the process of repeated addition. For example, 5 × 4 is simply saying 5 added to itself 4 times, or 5 + 5 + 5 + 5. There are many ways to represent multiplication. The first and most common is by using the multiplication sign ×. Multiplication can also be expressed as a dot, such as 5 • 4, or by placing numbers side by side with parentheses between them, such as 5(4).
TISSUES
Connective Tissue Connective tissue supports and binds to other tissues in the body. It is the framework that epithelial tissue rests upon, and it is what nerve and muscle tissues are embedded in. The major cells involved in immunological defense are also found in the connective tissue, and connective tissue is where inflammation, the body’s defense against invading microorganisms, occurs.
RUSSIAN
Peter the Great Reforms the Language In the early eighteenth century, Peter the Great came to power in Russia. With his political reforms came a reform of the alphabet that modified and simplified it and removed some of the Greek letters. Some vocabulary from Western Europe was introduced, and the language reflected Post-
Renaissance Europe instead of the Byzantine Empire’s way of pronouncing words.
LESSON 7D
THE REFORMATION
John Calvin In 1536, John Calvin, a lawyer, published “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” in which he expressed his theology. Calvin’s teachings gained in popularity, and soon Calvin would reform the church in Geneva and force its citizens to follow his practices. Although Calvin and Luther were contemporaries and shared many similar beliefs, there were considerable differences. In particular, Calvinism espoused the idea of predestination, that a person was destined at birth to either be saved or doomed to damnation.
WRITING
Right-Handedness Ninety percent of the world is right-handed. Scientists are still unsure how to explain the dominance of the right hand; however, it has been discovered that the rate of right-handedness in primitive man was less than it is today. In cultures where text is written from left to right, the right hand is considered to be more favorable, and in many religions and cultures, using the right hand shows respect.
OPERATIONS
Division Division is the opposite of multiplication. It is the process of splitting something into equal parts. Division can be represented in several ways. The most common symbol is ÷, but it can also be expressed with / between two numbers or with a bar between two numbers like in a fraction. So, if 5 × 4 = 20, then 20 ÷ 5 = 4. That problem can also be expressed as 20/5 or
.
TISSUES
Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue can contract and conduct electrical impulses and allow the body to move. Muscle is classified as voluntary or involuntary, and smooth or striated. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle (which is voluntary, striated, and attached to the bone); cardiac muscle (which is involuntary, striated, and found in the heart); and smooth muscle (which is involuntary, smooth, and found in the digestive system, respiratory system, eyes, and the walls of blood vessels).
RUSSIAN
A Need to Change the Language By the middle of the eighteenth century, there was a need for the written Russian language to reflect the actual language spoken. Three distinct styles were distinguished: high style, also known as Church Slavonic, which was to be spoken for religion and poetics; middle style, which was used for science and prose; and low style, which was to be used for low comedies and personal correspondence. The middle style would come to form the Russian language that exists today. It was a combination of East Slavonic and Church Slavonic.
LESSON 7E
THE REFORMATION
The Day of Placards On October 18, 1584, citizens of Paris awoke to find the city covered with placards denouncing the Catholic Mass and condemning the Eucharist, among other things. These placards were also posted all around northern France and even on the king’s door. A group of Huguenots, French adherents of Calvinism, were deemed the culprits, and were burned. Suppression of Protestantism soon followed.
WRITING
Cross-Dominance Cross-dominance, or mixed-handedness, is when a person favors one hand for some activities and favors the other hand for different activities. Ambidexterity is a rare form of cross-dominance, but in many cases, a person can be left- or right-handed and cross-dominant. There are also cases where people who are cross-dominant are stronger on their less dominant side.
OPERATIONS
Squaring and the Square Root Squaring a number is multiplying that number by itself. It is represented by having a small 2 as the exponent next to the number that you are going to multiply. So, 42 is equal to 16, because 4 × 4 = 16. The square root is the inverse of squaring and is represented by √. Perfect squares are squares of whole numbers. For example, √100 = 10 because 102 = 100, and that is a perfect square. However, √105 = 10.246951, and that is not a whole number, and therefore, not a perfect square.
TISSUES
Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue is made up of neurons (cells that transmit messages) and neuroglia cells (cells that protect the neurons). Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct impulses and react to various stimuli, and it is the main part of the nervous system. Nervous tissue consists of the brain, the spinal cord (making up the central nervous system), and the peripheral nerves (making the peripheral nervous system).
RUSSIAN
The Soviet Union’s Spelling Reform of 1918 Shortly after the Russian Revolution, and as a direct result of political ideology, the Russian language was simplified once again. This time, four letters were removed, and one silent letter used at the end of words was also removed. New political terminology
was introduced, and the politeness characteristic toward the upper classes was also removed. These steps were characteristic of what the new authoritarian regime set out to accomplish.
LESSON 7F
THE REFORMATION
The Counter-Reformation Initially, the Catholic Church thought nothing of the Reformation, but as it spread from country to country, the Church established the Council of Trent to repair the schism that was occurring. A Spanish nobleman named Ignatius Loyola, who had renounced his military life, founded the Jesuits, a group that made reforms from within the Church. By the end of the sixteenth century, half of the lands lost to Protestant Reform returned to the Catholic Church, a divide that still exists today.
WRITING
Ambidexterity Ambidexterity is the ability to be equally adept at using both the left and the right hand. It is a rare form of cross-dominance, and though it can be taught, only 1 out of 100 people are born naturally ambidextrous. Because many items are made for right-handed people, left-handed people learn to use their right hands, and are more likely to become ambidextrous than right-handed people.
OPERATIONS
Factorials Factorials are a very simple concept to understand. It is expressed by having an exclamation point following a number (for example, 5!). Factorials are the product (meaning result from multiplication) of all of the positive integers less than or equal to that number. So, 5! is really saying 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
TISSUES
Organs Organs are groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function. In organs, there is usually a main tissue called the parenchyma, which is unique to the specific organ, and sporadic tissues called the stroma, such as connective tissue or blood. Groups of organs that work together to perform a specific function form organ systems.
RUSSIAN
Useful Russian Phrases Here are some helpful phrases to use when traveling to Russia. Note that these are not written with the Russian alphabet, but rather pronunciations that have been written in English.
Good day. Dobry den.
Hi/Hello. Privet.
Do you speak English? Govorite li vy po angliyski?
I need to use the restroom. Mne nuzhno otoyti v tualet.
What time is it? Kotoryy chas?
Goodbye. Do svidaniya.
Yes. Da.
No. Net.
LESSON 7 QUIZ
Which one of the following did Martin Luther include in his 95 Theses?
Rejection of Christianity
Rejection of Protestantism
Rejection of the pope
Rejection of the Trinity
Which of the following is true?
By the beginning of the sixteenth century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion in Western Europe.
By the beginning of the sixteenth century, Protestantism and Calvinism were the only religions in Western Europe.
By the beginning of the sixteenth century, Lutheranism was the only religion in Western Europe.
By the beginning of the sixteenth century, Lutheranism and Calvinism were the only religions in Western Europe.
Ambidexterity is an example of:
Right-handedness
Left-handedness
Syllabaries
Cross-dominance
What is one reason why there are no fully logographic languages?
Words do not sound the way they are written.
With the amount of characters, it would take too long to learn every word.
There are too many consonants in each word.
There are too many vowels in each word.
What operation is being expressed in the following problem: 9(6) = 54
Division
Square root
Factorial
Multiplication
Which of the following is a perfect square?
√97
√43
√49
√67
The major cells involved in immunological defense are found in the:
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue
Organs
Which of the following is a main function of the endothelium?
Absorption
Protection
Secretion
All of the above
Who invented Cyrillic?
Peter the Great
Constantine
Methodius
B and C
Which of the following was not a change made in the Soviet Union Spelling Reform of 1918?
Four letters were removed.
One silent letter that was put at the end of words was removed.
New political terminology was introduced.
New vowels were introduced.
ANSWER KEY: c, a, d, b, d, c, a, d, d, d
Lesson 8
HISTORY: Rome
The Founding Myth, The Roman Kingdom, The Roman Republic, The Roman Empire, The Fall of Rome, The Colosseum
LANGUAGE ARTS: Speaking
The Vocal Folds, The Voice, Volume, The Pitch of a Voice, Diction, Speech Impediments
MATH: Decimals
Naming Numbers with Decimals, Addition and Subtraction with Decimals, Multiplying with Decimals, Division with Decimals, Rounding Decimals, Finding the Percent of a Number
SCIENCE: Reproduction
The Human Reproductive System, Gametes, The Male Reproductive System, The Female Reproductive System, Fetal Development,
Asexual Reproduction
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Greek
Mycenaean Greek, Classical Greek, Hellenistic Greek, Medieval Greek, Modern Greek, Useful Greek Phrases
LESSON 8A
ROME
The Founding Myth According to legend, Romulus and Remus were the children of the god Mars. Mars feared they would one day kill him, and decided to drown them. They were rescued by a she-wolf and raised by her until ultimately being found by a shepherd and his wife. When the boys grew older, they decided to build a city. In a fight over who would rule the city, Romulus killed Remus with a rock. Romulus then named the city after himself and called it Rome.
SPEAKING
The Vocal Folds Vocal folds, or what are commonly referred to as vocal cords, are responsible for producing your voice. Vocal folds are a pair of tissue flaps stretched across the trachea. The vocal folds open when breathing and close while swallowing food. During the process of speaking, the tissues vibrate and change the flow of air that comes from your lungs. This modification of airflow produces the sound of your voice.
DECIMALS
Naming Numbers with Decimals Decimals are another way of expressing a fraction. The fraction is equivalent to 0.8. Each number after the decimal is based on the number 10. Therefore, 0.8 is actually eight-tenths. A number in the next spot to the right would make it hundredths, and the next spot to the right would make it thousandths. For example, 0.54 is the same as saying fifty-four-hundredths, and 0.986 is the same as saying nine-hundred eighty-six-thousandths.
REPRODUCTION
The Human Reproductive System The reproduction system is a system of organs that work together and allow humans to reproduce. In order for reproduction to occur, two different types of reproduction systems must be present: the male reproduction system and the female reproduction system. The differences between these systems allow for the genetic material of both individuals to be passed on to the offspring.
GREEK
Mycenaean Greek Mycenaean Greek is the oldest form of the Greek language. It was spoken from the sixteenth to eleventh centuries b.c. in Mycenae and Crete. The Linear B script tablets, which showed a system of writing based on a syllabic alphabet, is the only record of Mycenaean Greek. The language consisted of eighty-eight signs representing syllables and made no distinction between long and short vowels, or double consonants.
LESSON 8B
ROME
The Roman Kingdom The Roman Kingdom lasted from 753 to 509 b.c. Rome was established as a village on the Tiber
River and was ruled by seven kings (with Romulus as the first), who were elected by the village to serve for life. According to legend, Romulus’s followers were mostly men from all classes, including slaves, and the shortage of women brought about the abduction of women from the neighboring tribe, the Sabines. The Kingdom of Rome expanded to 350 square miles at this time. Most notably, a Senate of 100 men was created to act as an advisory council to the king.
SPEAKING
The Voice To create your voice, air is blown from the lungs against the loosely closed vocal folds. As the air pushes through the small space between the vocal folds, it covers the vocal folds. The air then passes through a constriction and speeds up, creating suction. The suction draws part of the vocal folds in toward the center, and they are then pushed by more air from the lungs. This repeated movement is known as the mucosal wave, and its regularity is essential to the production of your voice.
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