GAS LAWS
Boyle’s Law Boyle’s law, named after Robert Boyle, states that if temperature is constant, there is an inversely proportional relationship between volume and absolute pressure. The equation for Boyle’s law is represented as:
pV = k
p is the pressure, V is the volume, and k is a constant, which is found by multiplying the pressure by the volume. Because there is an inverse relationship between volume and pressure, if the volume is doubled, the pressure would be inverted, which means that one-half of the pressure is being used.
PASHTO
Afghanistan Pashto is currently spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Afghanistan, Pashto is mostly prevalent in the south, southwest, and east, though it is also spoken in some western and northern areas. Since the eighteenth century, the kings of Afghanistan (with one exception) were ethnic Pashtuns. In 1936, Pashto was declared a national language in Afghanistan, and it is currently one of two official languages, the other being Dari (as of 1964). Pashto spread to Pakistan as a result of the Durand Line, which was established in 1893 and became a border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. One-third of the Afghan Empire was lost from the border shift, and this land became Pakistan.
LESSON 33C
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN CHINA
Break from the Soviets Following the failure of the Great Leap Forward, Mao Zedong withdrew from public life temporarily. In the 1950s, Mao’s People’s Republic of China and Stalin’s Soviet Union were the largest communist states, and supported one another. When Stalin died, Nikita Khrushchev came to power, and began to steer away from Stalin’s policies. Mao Zedong believed that Khrushchev’s policies were betraying Marxism, and with the Great Leap Forward taking a horrible turn for the worse, Khrushchev stopped funding the People’s Republic of China. Mao Zedong was then replaced as chairman in 1959 by his opponent; however, he retained his position with the Politburo of the Communist Party.
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
Children’s Literature Children’s literature changed during the Victorian era. By 1848, the work of Hans Christian Andersen was translated into English, sparking a great interest in fairytales. It is during the Victorian era, for example, that Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland books came out and became popular. The change in children’s literature is a direct result of the time period. Views on children began to shift, and child labor and required education of children came to the forefront of social issues. As more children began reading, an industry based on producing literature for them began to grow.
GROUP THEORY
Matrix Groups Matrix groups are the second most important types of group. You might recall from earlier that matrices are vector space. In a matrix group, group G is a set that consists of elements that are square matrices. A square matrix has the same vertical and horizontal dimensions. Matrix groups have invertible matrices. Matrix groups are useful for understanding objects that have symmetries. For example, matrix groups can be found in projective spaces of geometry, the study of molecules in chemistry, and the study of particle physics. Conceptually, matrix groups are very similar to permutation groups.
GAS LAWS
Charles’s Law In the 1800s, Jacques Charles and Joseph Louis-Gay Lussac studied how gas volume was affected by the gas’s temperature. Charles’s law, which is also called the law of volumes, shows that when heated, gas expands. Charles’s law can be depicted as:
V α T
Other ways of showing this are:
V represents volume and T represents absolute temperature. In each formula, the volume of gas increases proportionally when the absolute temperature increases.
PASHTO
Pakistan Pashto is not an official language in Pakistan as it is in Afghanistan, even though in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (which used to be known as North-West Frontier Province), and Balochistan Province a total of 27 million people (or 15 percent) speak the language. In Pakistan, the official languages are Urdu and English. Pashto was allowed to be used in schools as a medium of instruction for the first time in 1984. Even though Pashto has no official status, there is a long literary tradition of Pashto in Pakistan.
LESSON 33D
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN CHINA
The Cultural Revolution From 1966 to 1976, in an effort to prevent the bureaucratization and capitalization of Communism as in the Soviet Union, Mao Zedong created what would be known as the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.” The Cultural Revolution is now considered one of the darkest periods in China’s history. All schools were closed, and the students were encouraged to join the Red Guard, which was responsible for persecuting intellectuals and teachers. The Red Guard turned increasingly more violent (over a million people died from the purges) and split into factions. Mao then enforced the People’s Liberation Army to suppress the factionalism of the Red Guard. During this time period, Mao’s ideology was harshly enforced. Youths were taken out of cities and forced to work in agrarian areas. Artists who made antisocialist work and ethnic minorities were highly persecuted.
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
Poetry The most highly regarded poet during the Victorian era was Alfred, Lord Tennyson. His poetry reflected the feelings of the era, expressing melancholy and doubts about religion, yet a confidence in class. There was a movement in the middle of the nineteenth century known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement that focused on reviving the work of medieval and classical times. The greatest example of this movement can be found in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, which combined the story of King Arthur with ideas and issues of the modern day.
GROUP THEORY
Transformation Groups Transformation groups deal with symmetry. Both permutation and matrix groups are special types of transformation groups. These groups act on a specific space (in permutation groups, it is a set, and in matrix groups, it is a vector space), but the structure is preserved. As transformations preserve an object, there will be more symmetry. Transformation groups have two properties:
If transformations f and g belong to G, then the composition f o g, meaning (f(g(x)), also belongs to G.
The set G contains the inverse transformation f-1 with every transformation f.
GAS LAWS
Gay-Lussac’s Law Gay-Lussac’s law builds upon Boyle’s law and Charles’s law, and actually represents two ideas. The first part is known as the law of combining volumes. This law states that gases combine in simple proportions (for example, water is simply two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen). The other part of Gay-Lussac’s law is the pressure-temperature law. This law states that pressure of an amount of gas at a constant volume is proportional to the absolute temperature.
This can be expressed as: or P α T
PASHTO
Dialects In both Pakistan and Afghanistan, there are two main dialects of Pashto. The northern dialect is known as Pakhto, and the southern dialect is simply known as Pashto. Pakhto, the northern dialect, is known for its harder sound, while Pashto sounds softer. The difference in name stems from these changes in pronunciation. In general, there are not that many morphological differences between the two dialects, and they are generally mutually intelligible. The dividing line between the two dialects passes through Paktika, where north of the line, Pakhto is spoken, and south of the line, Pashto is spoken.
LESSON 33E
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN CHINA
Tiananmen Incident Zhou Enlai, the premier who founded the People’s Liberation Army, died on January 8, 1976. The Gang of Four forbade anyone to take part in any of the activities honoring his death, creating great uproar. On April 4, 1976, the eve of a festival that paid homage to the deceased, an estimated 2 million people gathered in Tiananmen Square to memorialize Zhou Enlai and express their anger over the Cultural Revolution. The next day, the people discovered that their wreaths and items for Zhou Enlai were removed, leading to outrage. A violent riot began, police cars were set ablaze, and thousands of people forced their way into government buildi
ngs.
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
Scientific and Philosophical Writing During the Victorian era, Charles Darwin’s ideas of evolution in his book On the Origin of Species shook the world, and writings about nature and evolution became widely popular. It is also during this time period that some great philosophers began to write. The Victorian era saw the work of John Stuart Mill, John Henry Newman, and Henry Edward Manning. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the two founders of Communism, wrote their books during this time in Victorian England.
GROUP THEORY
Abstract Groups So far, all of the types of groups have been concrete. They have used either numbers, matrices, or permutations. In the late nineteenth century, the idea of abstract groups was created. Abstract groups have abstract properties and are presented with generators and relations. An abstract group can be represented as:
G = < S | R >
An example of an abstract group would be the Cyclic Group, a group that is generated from one single element.
GAS LAWS
Avogadro’s Law In 1811, Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro hypothesized that two gases with the same pressure, volume, and temperature would also contain the same number of molecules, regardless of any physical or chemical properties. Avogadro’s law can be written as:
V represents the volume, n represents the number of moles (or substance) in the gas, and k is a constant.
From Avogadro’s law, it was determined that the ideal gas constant (k) is the same value for any gas, which means:
PASHTO
Writing System The Pashto alphabet, which has 45 letters, is derived from the Arabic alphabet, but features letters that represent sounds not found in Arabic. All of the 28 letters from the Arabic system are used, and there are three letters in common with the Persian and Urdu alphabets. In total, there are 45 letters to the Pashto alphabet. In the late eighteenth century, the spelling system was standardized.
LESSON 33F
THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN CHINA
End of the Cultural Revolution By 1968, the Chinese economy was close to collapsing and the factionalism in the Red Guard was creating havoc. In 1971, the chaos of the Cultural Revolution had died down with the People’s Liberation Army. From 1972 to 1976, with both Chairman Mao and the premier in deteriorating health, there was a great struggle over whether to continue the Cultural Revolution in the succession phase. Mao’s propagandists blamed the chaos of the Cultural Revolution on four people, known as the “Gang of Four” (one of whom was Mao Zedong’s wife). In October of 1976, the Gang of Four were arrested, thus ending the Cultural Revolution. Mao Zedong died on September 9, 1976.
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
Late Victorian Period The Victorian era can be divided into two parts: the early Victorian period (which ended around 1870), and the late Victorian period (which lasted from 1890 to 1918). In the late Victorian period, the principles that followed throughout the Victorian era were rejected. There was a return to fantasy, with such works as Robert Lewis Stevenson’s The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and the emergence of the “problem novel.” Problem novels focused on the institution of marriage and the role of the sexes and sexual identity.
GROUP THEORY
Rubik’s Cube Group theory sounds incredibly complicated. To understand how group theory works, think of the Rubik’s Cube. The Rubik’s Cube can be thought of as a mathematical group because it meets all four requirements of being a group, and permutations are each of the elements of the group. In order to solve the Rubik’s Cube, you need to perform certain actions in a particular order.
GAS LAWS
Graham’s Law Graham’s law deals with effusion, the process where molecules escape from a container through a hole and do not collide. Graham’s law states that the rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular masses. Graham’s law can be written as:
Rate1 and Rate2 are the rates of effusion for the first and second gases, respectively, and M1 and M2 are the molar masses of the first and second gases, respectively.
PASHTO
Useful Pashto Phrases Here are some helpful phrases to use when traveling to Afghanistan or Pakistan. Note that these are written phonetically.
Hello. Salaam.
Good morning. Sahr pikheyr.
Good afternoon. Wradz mo pa kheyr.
Good evening. Maakhaam mo pa kheyr.
Good night. Shpa mo pa kheyr.
Pleased to meet you. Khwakh shum pa li do di.
I don’t understand. Za na poheegum.
How much is this? Da somra di?
Excuse me. Bakhena ghwaarum.
Where’s the toilet? Khakandas cheerta di?
Thank you. Manana.
What’s your name? Staa num tsa dhe?
Goodbye. Da khoday pa amaan.
LESSON 33 QUIZ
The Red Guard was responsible for:
Protecting China’s borders from the Soviet Union
Persecuting intellectuals and teachers
Creating the Great Leap Forward
Creating communes
The Cultural Revolution was blamed on:
Chairman Mao
Zhou Enlai
The Gang of Four
The Red Guard
Which of the following are reasons for the wide popularity of children’s literature?
Views on child labor began to change.
Children were required to attend school and learn to read.
The works of Hans Christian Andersen were translated into English.
All of the above.
What did the Pre-Raphaelites focus on?
A revival of classical and medieval work
A rejection of classical and medieval work
A revival of ideology from the French Revolution
A rejection of ideology from the French Revolution
Which of the following statements is true?
Any group can be represented as a transformation group.
Any group can be represented as an abstract group.
Any group can be represented as a permutation group.
Any group can be represented as a matrix group.
As transformations preserve an object, there will be:
More symmetry
Less symmetry
More abstraction
Less abstraction
Which law states pV = k?
Graham’s law
Charles’s law
Gay-Lussac’s law
Boyle’s law
Which law states V α T?
Graham’s law
Charles’s law
Gay-Lussac’s law
Boyle’s law
Why did Pashto spread to Pakistan?
The Afghanis invaded Pakistan.
The Pashtun people invaded Pakistan.
The Durand Line divided the area inhabited by Pakhtuns, creating Pakistan.
The Durand Line forced all Pashto-speaking people to move to Pakistan.
Which of the following is true?
The first written records of Pashto date back to the sixteenth century.
By the seventeenth century, the national poet of Afghanistan, Khushhal Khan Khattak, was writing in Pashto.
Parts of the language borrow from Greek, dating back to the third century b.c.
All of the above.
ANSWER KEY: b, c, d, a, c, a, d, b, c, d
Lesson 34
HISTORY: Vietnam War
Vietnam Following the Geneva Peace Accords, A Split in Vietnam, The Kennedy Years, The Johnson Years, Antiwar Movement, The End of the War
LANGUAGE ARTS: Charles Dickens
About Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, A Tale of Two Cities, The Mystery of Edwin Drood
MATH: The Number e
What Is e?, The Natural Base, Numerical Series, Discrete Accumulation, Hyperbolic Trigonometry, Derangements
SCIENCE: Plasma
What Is Plasma?, Degree of Ionization, T
emperatures, Differences Between Plasma and Gas, Magnetization, Examples of Plasma
FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Afrikaans
The Origins, Phonetics and Grammar, Dialects, Afrikaans and Apartheid, Afrikaans in Post-Apartheid South Africa, Useful Afrikaans Phrases
LESSON 34A
VIETNAM WAR
Vietnam Following the Geneva Peace Accords After 100 years of colonization by the French, the Vietnamese fought and defeated the French in the First Indochina War, forcing them to leave. The French and Vietnamese met in Geneva to sign a treaty in the summer of 1954. According to the Geneva Peace Accords, elections would be held in 1956, making the division between North and South Vietnam at the seventeenth parallel disappear. The United States, believing this would give too much power to the Communist party in Vietnam, supported the creation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to act as a counterrevolutionary alternative. With the help of the United States and SEATO, South Vietnam established a new government as the Republic of Vietnam.
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