24. Quoted in Morrison, Outpost, 100.
25. Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 88–94.
26. Simpson letter reproduced in Lamb, ed., McLoughlin’s Fort Vancouver Letters, xliv.
27. John S. Galbraith, “British-American Competition in the Border Fur Trade of the 1820s,” Minnesota History 36 (September 1959), 241–42; Simpson letter quoted in Lamb, ed., McLoughlin’s Fort Vancouver Letters, xliv.
CHAPTER 23. THE WONDER OF THE STEAMBOAT
1. Stephen H. Long to James Monroe, March 13, 1817, NA, RG 107, Letters Received, M221, Roll 74.
2. After the War of 1812, the army was organized into northern and southern divisions; Jackson commanded the southern division and Major General Jacob Brown commanded the northern division. When Long explored the Illinois River, he passed out of the southern division and technically transferred from Jackson’s to Brown’s command, though he was acting under the secretary’s special orders and reported to General Smith at Fort Belle Fontaine again the next year. Jackson was also aggrieved that he only learned of Long’s expedition when he read about it in the National Register. See Andrew Jackson to George Graham, January 14, 1817, Graham to Jackson, February 1, 1817, Jackson to James Monroe, March 4, 1817, and Monroe to Jackson, December 2, 1817, The Papers of Andrew Jackson, 7 vols., Harold D. Moser, David R. Hoth, and George H. Hoemann, eds. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press), 4:85–87, 97–98, 155; John Spencer Bassett, Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, 2 vols. (Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1927), 2:xi–xii; Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 479; Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 38; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 45.
3. Smith quoted in Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 64.
4. John C. Calhoun to Thomas A. Smith, March 18, 1818, in US House, Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1899, Vol. 2, Calhoun Correspondence, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1900, Serial 4012, 134–35.
5. Long quoted in Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 54; Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 65; George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 (New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1951), 63–64.
6. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 64; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 60–61.
7. Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 60–61; Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 64–67.
CHAPTER 24. A CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE
1. The deaths of Martha’s father and two siblings were recorded at Christ Church, Philadelphia (Beverly Bode Howard personal communication, August 31, 2010). The adopted sister married John Norvell, publisher of The Gazette, and later moved to Michigan, where John Norvell was elected to the US Senate. Her obituary in the Detroit Free Press (reproduced at www.findgrave.com
2. William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 190, 403.
3. “Topographical Engineers,” no date, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1; Rev. William Travis, comp., History of the Germantown Academy: Compiled from Minutes of the Trustees from 1760 to 1877, Horace Wemyss Smith, ed. (Philadelphia: Ferguson Bros. & Co., 1882), 48; Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 190–92.
4. Samuel J. Watson, “Flexible Gender Roles during the Market Revolution: Family, Friendship, Marriage, and Masculinity among U.S. Army Officers, 1815–1846,” Journal of Social History 29, no. 1 (Fall 1995), 83.
5. Ibid., 91.
6. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 206–7.
7. Roger L. Nichols, ed., The Missouri Expedition, 1818–1820: The Journal of Surgeon John Gale with Related Documents (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 61.
8. Democratic Free Press (Philadelphia), March 5, 1819. The marriage of Stephen Long and Martha Hodgkis, together with other Hodgkis and Dewees marriages and baptisms performed in the church, are found in “genealogical search” at www.christchurchphila.org.
9. Carl N. Degler, At Odds: Women and the Family in America from the Revolution to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 10–14.
10. Anya Jabour, Marriage in the Early Republic: Elizabeth and William Wirt and the Companionate Ideal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 9; Degler, At Odds, 26–29. Stephen and Martha Long named their four sons after distinguished men whose association with the family alternately reflected well on one or the other marriage partner. They named their firstborn son William Dewees after Martha’s uncle, the prominent Philadelphia physician. The next son they named Henry Clay after the Kentucky statesman and presidential hopeful—obviously an expression of Long’s own political convictions at the time. The third son was named Richard Harlan after another Philadelphia physician and friend of the Dewees family. The fourth son was named Edwin James after the young physician and naturalist who accompanied Long on his expedition to the Rockies. (This man was the same Edwin James who helped John Tanner write his autobiography.) They did not follow this pattern in naming their two daughters, the fourth and sixth children in birth order, whom they named Mary and Lucy. Thus, they placed their sons and daughters in separate spheres as soon as they christened them. The sons’ names showed a public face; the daughters’ names did not. “Long Family Genealogy” lists the children as follows: William Dewees Long b. Philadelphia, October 11, 1820, Henry Clay Long b. February 18, 1822, Richard Harlan Long b. Philadelphia, October 3, 1824, Mary Long b. Philadelphia, 1828, Edwin James Long b. Baltimore, June 11, 1829, d. 1830, Lucy Leonis Long b. Philadelphia, October 13, 1832.
11. Tanner, Narrative, 277. The characterization of Stephen Long in Tanner’s Narrative is complicated by the fact that Tanner’s translator and editor, Edwin James, knew Long himself very well from the expedition to the Rocky Mountains and their subsequent collaboration in writing and publishing Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains. Letters that Edwin James sent to his family before and after the expedition were quite negative about Long; however, James was admiring of Long in his public writings and the two remained lifelong friends. Stephen and Martha named one of their children after Edwin James. See Carlo Rotella, “Travels in a Subjective West: The Letters of Edwin James and Major Stephen Long’s Scientific Expedition of 1819–1820,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 41, no. 4 (Autumn 1991), 20–35.
12. Volo and Denneen, Family Life in Native America, 43–47. For an example of whites’ selective perception, see the description of marriage among the Omaha in James, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, 240–44.
13. Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 26.
14. William R. Swagerty, “Marriage and Settlement Patterns of Rocky Mountain Trappers and Traders,” Western Historical Quarterly 11, no. 2 (April 1980), 164–68, 176–77. See also White, “The Woman Who Married a Beaver: Trade Patterns and Gender Roles in the Ojibwa Fur Trade,” 109–47.
15. Quotations from J. H. Johnston, “Documentary Evidence of the Relations of Negroes and Indians,” Journal of Negro History 14, no. 1 (January 1929), 25.
16. Jedediah Morse, A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on Indian Affairs (New Haven, 1822), 64, 73–74, 78–79.
17. Stephen H. Long, “Report of the Western River Expedition,” February 20, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 292A, Bulky File 107, p. 101.
CHAPTER 25. UP THE MISSOURI
1. Philip Drennen Thomas, “The United States Army as the Early Patron of Naturalists in the Trans
-Mississippi West, 1803–1820,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 56, no. 2 (Summer 1978), 187.
2. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 67–70.
3. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, April 20, 1819, The Papers of John C. Calhoun Vol. 4, W. Edwin Hemphill, ed. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1967), 33; Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 71–75.
4. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, April 20, 1819, The Papers of John C. Calhoun 4:33–32.
5. Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 71–72; Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 78.
6. Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 72–73; William Darlington, comp., Reliquiae Baldwinianae: Selections from the Correspondence of the Late William Baldwin, M.D. (New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1969), 306.
7. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 66; Louis C. Hunter, “The Invention of the Western Steamboat,” Journal of Economic History 3, no. 2 (November 1943), 217.
8. Niles Weekly Register 16, no. 412 (July 24, 1819), 368.
9. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 81.
10. Ibid., 82–87.
11. American State Papers: Military Affairs, 2:324; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 85–86; Cardinal Goodwin, “A Larger View of the Yellowstone Expedition, 1819–1820,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4, no. 3 (December 1917), 307; Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun: Nationalist, 1782–1828 (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1944), 182–85.
12. Stephen H. Long to R. M. Johnson, January 20, 1820, in US House, Documents in relation to the claim of James Johnson for transportation on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, 16th Cong., 2d sess., H.Doc. 110, March 1, 1821, 73–75; Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 483; A. O. Weese, ed., “The Journal of Titian Ramsay Peale, Pioneer Naturalist,” Missouri Historical Review 41 (January 1947), 162–63.
13. Roger L. Nichols, “Stephen H. Long,” in Soldier’s West: Biographies from the Military Frontier, Paul Andrew Hutton, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 31.
14. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 95.
15. Ibid., 102.
16. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, October 28, 1819, The Papers of John C. Calhoun 4:388–89.
17. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, January 3, 1820, The Papers of John C. Calhoun 4:542–47.
18. Goodwin, “A Larger View of the Yellowstone Expedition, 1819–1820,” 309; Nichols, “Stephen H. Long,” 32.
19. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 111.
20. John C. Calhoun to Stephen H. Long, February 29, 1820, NA, RG 107, Letters Sent, M6, R011 11.
21. Nichols, “Stephen H. Long,” 32–33.
CHAPTER 26. TO THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
1. Robert J. Miller, Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2006), 1–8, passim.
2. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, December 24, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
3. James P. Ronda, “ ‘To Acquire What Knolege You Can’: Thomas Jefferson as Exploration Patron and Planner,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 150, no. 3 (September 2006), 409–13.
4. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 76–77, 93–95, quotation on 81.
5. Jerome O. Steffen, “William Clark,” in Soldiers West: Biographies from the Military Frontier, Paul Andrew Hutton, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 16.
6. Ibid., 15.
7. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage, 95.
8. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 15. See also Thomas, “The United States Army as the Early Patron of Naturalists in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1803–1820,” 171–93.
9. Bell, The Journal of Captain John R. Bell, 58.
10. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 166–70, 176–78. See also Richard H. Dillon, “Stephen Long’s Great American Desert,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 18, no. 3 (July 1968), 58–74.
11. Nichols, “Stephen H. Long,” 34–35; Thomas, “The United States Army as the Early Patron of Naturalists in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1803–1820,” 191.
12. Nichols, “Stephen H. Long,” 33–35; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 106–8; Bell, The Journal of Captain John R. Bell, 103; Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 485.
13. Maxine Benson, ed., From Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains: Major Stephen Long’s Expedition, 1819–1820 (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, Inc., 1988), 152, 187–88.
14. Ibid., 237–38, 273.
15. Ibid., 283.
16. Thomas, “The United States Army as the Early Patron of Naturalists in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1803–1820,” 191.
17. Stephen H. Long, “Report of the Western River Expedition,” February 20, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 292A, Bulky File 107, pp. 87, 90–91.
18. Ibid.
19. William B. Skelton, “Army Officers’ Attitudes Toward Indians, 1830–1860,” The Pacific Northwest Quarterly 67, no. 3 (July 1976), 115–16.
20. Stephen H. Long, “Report of the Western River Expedition,” February 20, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 292A, Bulky File 107, p. 92.
21. Ibid., 101.
22. Skelton, “Army Officers’ Attitudes Toward Indians, 1830–1860,” 113–24.
CHAPTER 27. MAPMAKER
1. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, December 12, 1820, The Papers of John C. Calhoun 5:478–80.
2. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun: Nationalist, 1782–1828, 198–224.
3. Stephen H. Long to Alexander Macomb, June 22, 1822, NA, RG 77, Entry 14, Box 7; Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, September 13, 1822, September 15, 1822, and October 26, 1822, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
4. Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 485; Bell, The Journal of Captain John R. Bell, 281–82, 306.
5. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, July 18, 1821, Long to Isaac Roberdeau, August 24, 1821, October 7, 1821, and December 24, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
6. Stephen H. Long to John C. Calhoun, June 15, 1821, James Duncan Graham to Calhoun, July 24, 1821, and Calhoun to Long, July 31, 1821, The Papers of John C. Calhoun 6:192, 278, 306; Long to Calhoun, July 18, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
7. Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 485.
8. Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 112–13.
9. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, August 24, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
10. Stephen H. Long to Christopher Van Deventer, February 8, 1821, NA, RG 107, Letters Received, M221, Roll 90.
11. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, October 7, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1; John C. Calhoun to Long, November 8, 1821, NA, RG 107, Letters Sent, M6, Roll 11; The Philadelphia Index or Directory for 1823 (Philadelphia: Robert Desilver, 1823), 230.
12. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 161–63; Edwin James, compiler, Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, performed in the years 1819 and ’20, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: H. C. Carey and I. Lea, 1823).
13. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, October 7, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
14. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, May 3, 1822, and June 10, 1822, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1; Long to Alexander Macomb, March 2, 1823, and April 2, 1823, NA, RG 77, Entry 264, Box 2. See also Herman R. Friis, “Stephen H. Long’s Unpublished Manuscript Map of the United States Compiled in 1820–1822(?),” The California Geographer 8 (1967), 75–87, especially 85–87.
15. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, December 24, 1821, January 29, 1822, and January 30, 1822, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
16. Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, December 24, 1821, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
17. American State Papers: Military Affairs, 3:502; Stephen H. Long to Isaac Roberdeau, June 10, 1822, September 15, 1822, and October 26, 1822, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1.
18. Under Pennsylvania’s “Act for the gradual Abolition of Slavery” (1780), all persons born of slave mothers were free; however, young slaves could be brought into the
state and manumitted in exchange for an indenture, which bound their labor until they were twenty-eight years old. Whites, on the other hand, were indentured in the state for a maximum of four years. The loophole in Pennsylvania’s antislavery law encouraged many Philadelphians to acquire young black servants who had been born into slavery in nearby Delaware, Maryland, or Virginia. These persons could be bought and sold and compelled to work on the master’s terms just like a slave. They were entitled to leave the master’s premises or marry only with the master’s permission. Sometimes the master paid for the servants to obtain a certain amount of schooling or instruction to prepare them for their eventual freedom. At a minimum the master was expected to provide “freedom dues” on the servant’s twenty-eighth birthday amounting to two suits of clothes. See Edward Raymond Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania: Slavery—Servitude—Freedom, 1639–1861 (1911; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 78, 93, 96–99.
19. Stephen H. Long to Alexander Macomb, March 11, 1823, NA, RG 77, Entry 14, Box 9.
20. Ibid.
21. Wyndham D. Miles, “A Versatile Explorer: A Sketch of William H. Keating,” Minnesota History 36 (December 1959), 297–98.
22. Keating, Narrative, 1:143, 327.
23. Ibid., 1:2.
24. Innis, “Interrelations between the Fur Trade of Canada and the United States,” 329–32.
25. Keating, Narrative, 1:2.
26. Stephen H. Long to Alexander Macomb, May 23, 1823, NA, RG 77, Entry 14, Box 10; Keating, Narrative, 2:56–57.
27. Keating, Narrative, 1:5.
CHAPTER 28. THE NORTHERN EXPEDITION
1. Keating, Narrative, 1:76.
2. Ibid., 149–52, and 2:242–43.
3. Ibid., 123–25, 228–29, and 2:39.
4. Ibid., 442–45.
5. Nichols and Halley, Stephen Long, 191–97; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 125–27; Keating, Narrative, 1:350, 445.
6. Keating, Narrative, 1:445–47.
7. Clair Jacobson, “A History of the Yanktonai and Hunkpatina Sioux,” North Dakota History 47, no. 1 (1980), 6, 10.
8. Keating, Narrative, 2:5–8. The sketch of Wanatan is reproduced as the frontispiece. See also Gwen Westerman and Bruce White, Mna Sota Makoce: The Land of the Dakota (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012), 120.
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