31. John McLoughlin, “Autobiography,” in S. A. Clarke, Pioneer Days of Oregon Country (Portland: J. K. Gill Company, 1905), 215–17; Morrison, Outpost, 174–75.
32. John McLoughlin to Edward Ermatinger, February 1, 1836, in T. C. Elliott, ed., “Letters of Dr. John McLoughlin,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 23, no. 4 (December 1922), 368; Gay, Life and Letters of Mrs. Jason Lee, 16; McLoughlin, “Autobiography,” 220.
33. John McLoughlin to Alexander H. H. Stuart, July 15, 1851, in Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 330–33; McLoughlin, “Autobiography,” 217.
34. Jackson, Children of the Fur Trade, 62–63, 183; Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 329; Morrison, Outpost, 278, 465.
35. Jackson, Children of the Fur Trade, 230; Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 107–25; Morrison, Outpost, 221–27, 278–83, 339–49, 435, 465.
36. Simon Fraser to John McLoughlin, January 12, 1836, in Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 218–20.
37. Barker, The McLoughlin Empire and its Rulers, 178, 190–91; Morrison, Outpost, 221–27, 279–83, 339–49; John McLoughlin to John McLeod, March 1, 1833, in Mrs. Eva Emery Dye, ed., “Documents,” Washington Historical Quarterly 2, no. 2 (January 1908), 166–68; John McLoughlin to Edward Ermatinger, February 1, 1836, in T. C. Elliott, ed., “Letters of Dr. McLoughlin to Edward Ermatinger,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 23 (December 1922), 365–71.
38. Carlos Arnaldo Schwantes, The Pacific Northwest: An Interpretive History (rev. ed., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 144.
39. Jackson, Children of the Fur Trade, 222–23; Schwantes, The Pacific Northwest, 114, 153.
40. Galbraith, The Hudson’s Bay Company, 226–27.
41. Morrison, Outpost, 460–61.
42. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of Oregon, Vol. 2 (San Francisco: History Company, Publishers, 1888), 130–31. In 1862, the state sold the land to the heirs for a nominal sum.
43. Frank N. Schubert, ed., The Nation Builders: A Sesquicentennial History of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, 1838–1863 (Fort Belvoir, VA: Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, 1988), 9–18, 23–26; Forest G. Hill, Roads, Rails and Waterways: The Army Engineers and Early Transportation (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957), 220.
44. Long’s keen interest in the changing mission of the Topographical Engineers is evidenced in his correspondence with Isaac Roberdeau, April 16, 1822, September 9, 1822, and March 28, 1823, NA, RG 77, Entry 306, Box 1. See also Schubert, ed., The Nation Builders, 8–9. Long’s support of Clay for president is disclosed in his September 9, 1822, letter to Roberdeau, as well as his naming of his second son, Henry Clay Long.
45. Long had little to say about Indian relocation in the 1830s. The governor of the state of Georgia once asked his opinion about possible resistance by the Cherokees to forced relocation. Long replied that he thought the Cherokees would submit without a struggle but if any should resist then resistance must be met with “firmness and severity tempered as much as possible with humanity, otherwise a spirit of desperation will likely be engendered in the minds of the Indians and they will be stimulated to sell their lives as dearly as possible.” Quoted in Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 197.
46. Livingston, Portraits of Eminent Americans, 478–79.
47. The five-acre lot is described in Long’s will, a copy of which is filed with Military Bounty Land Warrant 276 120/55, NA, RG 49—Records of the General Land Office. The sale price is reported in Norman L. Freeman, reporter, Reports of Cases at Law and in Chancery Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Illinois, vol. 117 (Springfield, IL: Printed for the Reporter, 1887), 309, and it is consistent with Chicago land values at the time of sale as described in Homer Hoyt, One Hundred Years of Land Values in Chicago: The Relationship of the Growth of Chicago to the Rise of its Land Values, 1830–1933 (Washington: Beard Books, 1933), 108. Long’s estate included $40,000 for the Chicago property and about $48,000 for his home and property in Alton, Illinois. The top 1 percent in Illinois in 1870 had property wealth of $50,000 or greater, according to Frank Manzo IV, “The History of Economic Inequality in Illinois, 1850–2014,” March 2016, at Illinois.epi.org/countrysideonprofit/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/The-History-of-Economic-Inequality-in-Illinois-FINAL.pdf
48. The circumstances of Long’s children and grandchildren living with him in Alton are explained in relation to a suit brought by his heirs over his estate, as reported in Freeman, Reports of Cases at Law, vol. 117, 306–9.
49. Harvey Reid, Biographical Sketch of Enoch Long, an Illinois Pioneer (Chicago: Historical Society’s Collection, 1884), 87–105; Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 251.
50. “Seventh Debate: Alton, Illinois,” at www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/debate7.htm
51. Wood, Stephen Harriman Long, 250–63; Schubert, ed., The Nation Builders, 75–76.
POSTSCRIPT
1. Louise Erdrich, “Introduction,” in The Falcon: A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner (New York: Penguin Group, 1994), xi.
2. Amplifying Coues, ethnohistorian Harold Hickerson included a short chapter on the “Tanner-Henry data” in his book, The Chippewa and Their Neighbors.
3. Tanner, Narrative, 252.
4. The most important source on Tanner’s family besides Tanner himself is Baird, “Reminiscences of Early Days on Mackinac Island,” 17–55. Although some of Baird’s statements about Tanner’s family are in error, she is a reliable source on one point: on August 4, 1820, Tanner placed his wife and their newborn daughter, Lucy, in the temporary care of Baird’s grandmother at Mackinac after which Tanner proceeded on his journey with his other three small children from this marriage. I have estimated the years of Tanner’s two marriages and ten children’s births as follows (references in parentheses): first marriage in 1804 (Tanner, Narrative, 103); first child, boy, in 1805 (Tanner, 203, 267, 280); second child, girl, in 1807 or 1808 (Tanner, 151, 269, 277, and Keating, Narrative, 2:116); third child, girl, in 1809 (Tanner, 277, Keating, 2:116); second marriage in 1809 or 1810 (Tanner, 252); fourth child, Martha, in 1812 (Tanner, 257); fifth child, Mary, in 1813 (Tanner, 207); sixth child in 1814 (Tanner, 207); seventh child in 1817 or 1818 (Tanner, 252); eighth child, Lucy, in 1820 (Baird, 52); ninth child, James, in 1822 or 1823 (Baird, 53); tenth and eleventh children in the mid-1820s (Baird, 53), and twelfth child in 1832. The sixth and seventh children died around 1819–20. Delafield (The Unfortified Boundary) confirms that Tanner had six living children when he went to work for the American Fur Company in 1822 (423n). See also John T. Fierst, “Return to ‘Civilization’: John Tanner’s Troubled Years at Sault Ste. Marie,” 27.
5. Coues, New Light on the Early History of the Great Northwest, 262–63.
6. Noel M. Loomis, “Introduction,” in Tanner, Narrative, xii; “The Northwestern Indians, Communicated to Congress on the 9th of December, 1790,” American State Papers: Indian Affairs, 1:89.
7. Tanner, Narrative, 157.
8. Loomis, “Introduction,” in Tanner, Narrative, xix.
9. L. H. Pammel, “Dr. Edwin James,” Annals of Iowa 8, no. 3 (October 1907), 179–81; Rotella, “Travels in a Subjective West,” 25–29.
10. Benson, “Schoolcraft, James, and the ‘White Indian,’ ” 316.
11. Loomis, “Introduction,” in Tanner, Narrative, xviii.
12. Fierst, “Strange Eloquence,” 229. Also see Kyhl Lyndgaard, “Landscapes of Removal and Resistance: Edwin James’s Nineteenth-Century Cross-Cultural Collaborations,” Great Plains Quarterly 30 (Winter 2010), 37–46. Their collaborative translation of the New Testament was published as Kekitchemanitomenahn Gahbemahjeinnunk Jesus Christ, Otoashke Wawweendummahgawin (Albany, NY: Packard & Van Benthuysen, 1833) without attribution to the translators. However, the British and Foreign Bible Society catalogued the work as “The earliest complete N.T. in Chippewa; tra
nslated by Edwin James, assisted by John Tanner.”
13. See also the report on John Tanner making his way to New York with his manuscript in the Daily National Journal, August 14, 1828.
14. “Art. V.—A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner,” American Quarterly Review, 8, no. 15 (September 1, 1830), 108. Further evidence that Tanner met with Carey and Lea is found in “John Tanner,” Christian Watchman, August 22, 1828, which reports that Tanner was passing through Detroit with the manuscript and hoped to find a publisher in Philadelphia or New York. For the modern view of John Dunn Hunter, see Richard Drinnon, White Savage: The Case of John Dunn Hunter (New York: Shocken Books, 1972).
15. “The Booksellers’ Trade Sales,” American Publishers’ Circular and Literary Gazette, September 26, 1857.
16. Fierst, “Strange Eloquence,” 227.
17. Ibid., 227–28.
INDEX
Abenakis, captives of, 18–19
Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains (James), 191, 347
Adams, John Quincy, 142
Adams-Onís Treaty, 180, 183, 188
agokwa, 90–91
agriculture: Hudson’s Bay Company policy on, 316
inferiority of Indian people and, 204
McLoughlin on, 330
production of Ottawa and Ojibwa, 232–33
at Rainy Lake House, 268
at Red River colony, 286
Ais-ainse, 214
Ais-kaw-ba-wis, 223–24, 225, 228
Albany Factory, 117
Algonquian tribes: overview of, 27–28
Shawnees, 22, 28
social safety net of, 68–69
winter months and, 81. See also Ojibwas; Ottawas
Alton, Illinois, 338–40
Ambrose, Stephen E., 182
American Colonization Society, 44
American Fur Company: Cass and, 246
children of Tanner and, 323
competition from, 156, 273, 274–76
expansion of, 195
French Canadian voyageurs and, 279
Tanner and, 258, 275, 311. See also Côté, Pierre
Americanization of fur trade: army and, 315–16
Clark and, 246
Crawford and, 41–42, 43
overview of, 8
Americanization of Mackinac Island, 322
American Philosophical Society, 40, 54, 169, 173, 174, 348
Aneeb, 85, 86
Anglican mission, 285
Anglo-French-Indian milieu, 47
anti-Americanism of Shawnee Prophet, 210
Arkansas River, 180, 183, 185
Assiniboia, 123
Assiniboine River, 71, 122
Assiniboine tribe, 76, 88, 228
Astor, John Jacob, 108, 156, 195, 246, 274. See also American Fur Company
Atkinson, Henry, 176
Auger, Jean Baptiste, 263
bad medicine, power of, 224–25
Baird, Elizabeth Thérèse, 321, 325, 394n4
Baldwin, William, 173–74, 175, 176, 177, 179
Baptist Missionary Society, 197
Barton, Benjamin S., 174
Bas de la Rivière, 70
Basswood Lake, 273
Battle of Seven Oaks, 9, 133–34, 136–37, 141, 142–43, 233
Bay House, 152
Beaulieu, Paul and Bazil, 273–74
Beauvais, Jacques, 263
beaver, 63–64, 76, 79, 93, 112, 113, 198, 213
Be-gwais, 236, 286
Bell, John R., 179, 182–83
Beltrami, Giacomo, 199, 204
Berkhofer, Robert F., Jr., 54
Bethune, Angus, 148, 149, 157
Biddle, Thomas, Jr., 174, 177–78, 179
Bingham, Abel, 324–25, 326
bison. See buffalo
Black-Rogers, Mary, 270
boarding schools: for Indian children, 285–86
on Mackinac Island, 323
Bois brulé, 203. See also Métis
Boucher, François, 142
Bouck, Charles, 263, 268
boundaries and territorial claims, 188, 194–95, 202–3, 274–75
Boyd, George, 257, 258, 322, 323
Bradford, William, 56
Brandon House, 76, 78, 209, 219, 221
Breckenridge, Marcus P., 339
Britain: Convention of 1818 and, 188, 274–75
fur trade and, 40–41, 113, 118–19, 246, 273
Indian Department of, 215–16
Oregon country and, 333
Orkney Islands, 263
Treaty of Ghent and, 188. See also Hudson’s Bay Company; War of 1812
Brousse, Charles, 2, 204, 234, 287, 289, 301–2, 305
Brown, Jennifer S. H., 285
Brown, Paul, 142
buffalo, 75, 78, 120, 198, 200, 213, 226
Bulger, Andrew, 287, 289
Cadotte, Joseph, 273, 275, 279
Caldwell, John, 152–53, 154
Calhoun, John C.: book project and, 191
Long and, 165–66
Long expeditions and, 174–75, 179–80, 188, 194
moral condition of Indians and, 171
calumet, ritual smoking of, 265
Cameron, Duncan, 126, 127, 131
Camp Monroe, 202
Canada Jurisdiction Act, 125
Canadian Shield, 116, 205
canoes, birchbark (canot du nord), 117, 120, 204, 271
Cape Girardeau, 255–56
captivity: adoption by Indian tribes after, 23, 25–26, 27
narratives of, 17–19
rights of citizenship and, 388n3
Carey and Lea (publishers), 348–49
Carver, Gun, 48
Carver, Jonathan, 46, 48, 174
Carver, King, 48
Cass, Lewis, 245–46, 247, 248, 282, 324, 325
Chaboillez, Charles Jean Baptiste, 79, 361n11
Chalifoux, Pierre, 263
Chatelain, Nicholas, 263
Cheboygan village, 28
Cherokees, 56, 57–58
children: adopted by Net-no-kwa, 213
binding out of, 322–23
boarding schools for, 285–86
capture of, 23, 25–26, 27
mixed-blood, reclaiming from Indians, 284–85
at northwest forts, 108–9
Childs, Cephas G., 349
Christianity: civilization and assimilation of Indians and, 197–98
doctrine of unity of humankind and, 54
missionaries, 285–86, 322, 325, 330
revenge and, 16, 310
Tanner conversion to, 325–26
Therezia conversion to, 325
worldview of Indians and, 53
Civil War, 341
Clark, William: children of, 383n14
Fort Shelby and, 47
as governor, 46
Long and, 182–83, 304
scientific inquiries of, 163–64, 182
Tanner and, 246–47, 249–50, 255. See also Lewis and Clark expedition
Clay, Henry, 336, 340
Clermont’s band of Osages, 58
Clouston, William, 263, 268
coffee houses in London, 153–54
Colhoun, James, 194, 201
colonization: European, 181
by Selkirk, 121–22. See also Red River colony
Coltman, William B., 237
Columbia District of Hudson’s Bay Company, 29–330, 319–20
Columbia Fur Company, 198, 199
Colvile, Andrew, 147, 149, 154, 155, 156
companionate marriage, 170
Congregational church, 19–20
Congress: factory system and, 42, 194–95
Indian Removal Bill of, 336–37
liquor trafficking and, 282
Oregon Territory and, 334
Topographical Engineers and, 21, 336, 341
War Department budget and, 179, 188
Convention of 1818, 188, 274–75
Corps of Canadian Voyageurs, 126
Côté, Pierre: arrival of, 312–13
as clerk, 275, 279
Little Clear Sky and, 293
Tanner and, 280, 281–83, 311, 313–14
Coues, Elliott, 344
Crane Lake, 273–74
Crawford, William, 39, 41–42, 43–44, 164
credit system of fur trade, 114–15
Crees, 72, 88, 228
cultivation, labor of, 232
culture: encounter between Indian and European, 5–6
Indian, hardening of attitudes toward, 197
Mississippian Indian, 52–53
oral, 344
trade relations, views of, and, 265–67
white-Indian identity, 247, 257, 290–91. See also degeneracy, idea of; dependency of Indians, assumptions of; marriage; revenge; savagery
Dartmouth College, 20–21
dead, mourning for, 95
Dease, John Warren, 127, 234, 244
Deed Poll, 156–57
degeneracy, idea of: Fort Wayne and, 196–97
Long at Prairie du Chien and, 48
Puritans and, 53
racial prejudice of Americans and, 333
white-Indian contact and, 197, 316–17
Delafield, Joseph, 300–301
De Meuron Regiment, 135, 136, 137, 141
dependency of Indians, assumptions of: Crawford and, 42
fur trade and, 315–16;
in Indian-European relations, 6–7
“Description of the Indians from Fort William to Lake of the Woods” (McLoughlin), 103, 114, 310
De Watteville Regiment, 135
Dewess, William P., 174
Dickson, Robert, 96
discovery, doctrine of, 181
Donation Land Claim Act, 334
d’Orsonnens, P., 135, 136, 234, 236
Douglas, Stephen, 340
Douglas, Thomas. See Selkirk, Lord
Duponceau, Peter S., 348
Edwards, Ninian, 383n4
Ellice, Edward, 154–55
emigration, push and pull factors in, 64–65. See also migration
engagés, 196, 198
Erdrich, Louise, 343
Ermatinger, Charles, 244–45
expansionism, American, 209, 210
factory system in fur trade, 42, 43, 47, 194–95
families: Indian, 27, 170, 264
interracial, 284–86. See also children
Fauche, G. A., 139, 141
Ferry, William, 322
Fierst, John T., 348
Fisher, James, 31, 33
Five Civilized Tribes, relocation of, 337
Rainy Lake House Page 51